AP Psychology Unit 1-3

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Apr 26, 2026

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This deck includes 644 flashcards covering perspective focus, perspective emphasize, nurture, and related concepts. Use it to review key Psychology ideas, focus on weak cards, and prepare for your exam with StudyLess.

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01
What is the Minnesota Twin Study?
It studies identical twins who were separated at birth and raised in different environments.
02
What does the Biopsychosocial model focus on?
The interconnectedness of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior and mental processes.
03
What does the Cognitive perspective focus on?
How individuals interpret, process and remember information. How people process and store information and how this influences their behavior.
04
What is Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development?
Learning through adult guidance
05
What does the Psychodynamic perspective focus on?
The unconscious mind and early childhood experiences.
06
What does the Biological perspective focus on?
The links between our biological and psychological processes. Focuses on the brain, neurotransmitters, hormones, and nervous system's role in influencing thoughts and behaviors. Neurological conditions, mental disorders, and the effects of medication.
07
What is Psychology?
The scientific study of the mind and behavior.
08
What is Eugenics?
The belief in improving the genetic quality of the human population by selectively breeding for desirable traits and discouraging reproduction among those with traits considered undesirable.
09
What does the Evolutionary approach emphasize?
Evolution happens by natural selection.
10
Define Nature in the context of Nature vs. Nurture
Nature is genetics and heredity, or the passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another.
11
How is Epigenetics studied?
Identical Twin studies, family or adoption studies.
12
What does the Behavioral perspective emphasize?
Psychology should be an objective science that focuses on studying observable behaviors without referencing the mental processes.
13
What is Epigenetics?
How the environment and a person's behavior affect a person's genes and how they work.
14
What does the Humanistic perspective emphasize?
Freewill and a person's desire to move toward Self-Actualization. Emphasizes our potential as humans to grow as individuals.
15
What is Natural Selection?
Individual traits that are beneficial to the survival of the species would live while undesirable traits would die off.
16
What does the Sociocultural perspective focus on?
A person's experiences and influences in their life to better understand how culture shapes an individual.
17
Define Nurture in the context of Nature vs. Nurture
Nurture is environment, including family life, social groups, education, or societal influences.
18
How do certain genes change in Epigenetics?
Certain genes in a DNA are turned on or off based on sustained environment pressures.
19
What is Plasticity?
The brain's ability to change and adapt as a result of experiences, strengthening or weakening of neural connections.
20
What is Descriptive Statistics?
When researchers organize and describe the collected data.
21
What is Social desirability?
When participants skew answers to create a more favorable impression of themselves.
22
What is a Single-blind procedure?
Participants in the study do not know if they are in the experimental or control group, preventing social desirability and placebo effects.
23
What is a Likert scale?
A scale used to rate agreement with statements, typically ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
24
What are Quantitative measures?
Numerical data that can be statistically analyzed to identify relationships, patterns, and differences.
25
What are Qualitative measures?
Non-numerical data providing detailed insights into participants' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors; subjective and hard to replicate.
26
What is Experimenter bias?
When researchers' expectations, preferences, or beliefs influence the outcome of the study.
27
What is a Double-blind procedure?
Both participants and researchers do not know who is in the experimental group, preventing experimenter and social desirability bias.
28
What is a Placebo effect?
Participants' belief that they are receiving a treatment affects the outcome.
29
What does Positively skewed mean?
The tail of the distribution is on the right side; the mean is typically greater than the median and mode.
30
What is Convenience Sampling?
a non-probability technique that selects participants who are most easily accessible to the researcher
31
What is a Sample?
The selected group of individuals in a population to represent the population in the study.
32
What is Stratified Random Sampling?
The population is divided into different subcategories, and a random sample is taken from each subcategory.
33
What is Standard Deviation?
The average distance of data points from the mean in a data set.
34
What is the Range?
The difference between the highest and lowest value points in a data set.
35
What is a Placebo?
Something close to the independent variable but missing a key component, used to minimize bias.
36
What is Sampling Bias?
When the sample group does not represent the entire population, giving certain members a higher chance of selection.
37
What is a Confounding variable (Z) E?
Factors other than the independent variable that could impact the dependent variable.
38
What is an Independent variable (The Cause) X?
What is being manipulated or controlled by the researcher.
39
What is an Experiment group?
The group that gets the treatment (independent variable).
40
What is Random Sampling?
Each individual in a population has an equal chance of participating in the study.
41
What is Generalizability?
The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to the larger population.
42
What is a Control group?
The group that gets no treatment (sometimes receives a placebo to minimize bias).
43
What are Operational Definitions?
Outline the exact procedures used in a study and how variables are measured or manipulated.
44
What is a Hypothesis?
A specific, testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables that needs to be falsifiable.
45
What is Overconfidence bias?
A tendency to overestimate one's knowledge, the likelihood of being correct, or ability to perform certain tasks.
46
What is Hindsight bias?
A tendency to think that one could have anticipated the outcome of an event or experiment after it has already occurred.
47
What is Confirmation bias?
Paying attention to behavior that confirms one's belief while ignoring contradictory evidence, potentially leading to polarized thinking.
48
What is Meta-analysis?
A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to reach a conclusion.
49
What is a Case Study?
Examines an individual, group of people, event, or situation to provide detailed information and insight into the topic of interest.
50
What is Response Bias?
the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions inaccurately, untruthfully, or in a specific direction, leading to distorted data
51
What is Naturalistic Observation?
When a researcher observes individuals in a real-world setting to gather authentic data by observing people in their environments.
52
What is a non-experiment?
Used in research where a controlled experiment is not possible or ethical. It describes behavior and focuses only on correlation, not causation.
53
What is an experiment?
A systematic approach designed to be carried out under controlled conditions, with the goal to test a hypothesis and establish a causal relationship between independent and dependent variables.
54
What is Occam's Razor?
The simplest explanation for a phenomenon is usually the correct one.
55
What is a Dependent variable (The Effect) Y?
The outcome that is measured in the study.
56
What are Correlational studies?
Determine the relationship between two variables and can help determine the strength of the relationship. They do not establish a causal relationship.
57
What is a Theory?
An explanation supported by data from completed research that explains a question, thought, or phenomenon.
58
What is Replication?
Can other researchers replicate your study? Good operational definitions allow for replication to confirm or invalidate conclusions.
59
What is a Pie Chart?
A circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating numerical proportion.
60
What is Positive Correlation?
As one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase as well.
61
What is a scatter plot?
A graph that displays the relationship between two variables using plotted points.
62
What is a Correlational study?
Used to determine the relationship between two variables, allowing for predictions but not showing causation.
63
What is a Z-Score?
A numerical measurement describing how many standard deviations a particular score is from the mean.
64
What does a Normal (no skew) distribution mean?
The distribution is symmetrical, with the mean, median, and mode all being approximately equal.
65
What does Negatively skewed mean?
The tail of the distribution is on the left side; the mean is typically less than the median and mode.
66
What is a Histogram?
A graphical display of data where bars represent the frequency of data points falling within specified intervals.
67
What is the Mode?
The value that occurs most frequently in a data set.
68
What is the Median?
The middle value in a data set when the data is ordered.
69
What is Statistical Significance?
Whether there is a relationship.
70
What is Effect Size?
The strength of the relationship between variables; how big or meaningful the differences or relationship is in a study.
71
What does a P-value > 0.05 indicate?
We fail to reject the null hypothesis.
72
What is a Frequency Polygon?
A graph that connects data points to show frequency distribution, often used to visualize trends over time or continuous data.
73
What does a P-value < 0.05 indicate?
The results are statistically significant, and the null hypothesis can be rejected (accepting the alternative hypothesis).
74
What is the Alternative hypothesis?
There is an effect or difference between variables.
75
What is the Null hypothesis?
There is no significant effect or relationship between variables; variations are due to random fluctuation.
76
What is the Mean?
The average of a data set, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of data points.
77
What is Negative Correlation?
As one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease.
78
What is a Population?
The entire group that the research is studying.
79
What is a Frequency Distribution Table?
A table that organizes data by frequency within defined intervals or categories.
80
What is scientifically derived evidence?
Information, data, or conclusions obtained through a scientific method, such as controlled experiments.
81
What is the definition of a defensible claim?
A statement or argument supported by logical reasoning or evidence, allowing it to be supported in a debate or discussion.
82
What are the types of research methods listed?
Experiment, Correlational Research, Case Study, Naturalistic Observation, Meta-analysis, Cross-sectional Study, Longitudinal Study.
83
What is a Quasi-experiment?
An experiment where random assignment cannot be used, such as in studies involving depression.
84
What is Inferential Statistics?
When researchers make predictions about data, determining if sample data can be applied to a population.
85
What is informed assent?
Agreement obtained from minors or individuals unable to give full informed consent, often with parental or guardian permission.
86
What is the purpose of Replication in research?
Allows other individuals to conduct the study again to check original findings and verify results.
87
What is Peer review?
Other experts in the field assess a research study's methodology, data, and conclusions before it is published.
88
What is the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)?
A committee that oversees and regulates the care and use of animals in research.
89
What is the Institutional Review Board (IRB)?
An ethics committee that reviews and approves research involving human participants to establish standards.
90
What is Debriefing?
The process at the end of a study where researchers provide participants with full information about the research.
91
What is informed consent?
Participants agree to be part of a study after being informed of its nature, risks, and benefits.
92
What are the ethical responsibilities in psychological research involving humans?
Researchers have a moral responsibility to protect participants from harm, ensuring confidentiality, privacy, right to withdraw, and transparency.
93
What is Percentile Rank?
The percentage of scores at or below a particular score.
94
What is Regression Toward the Mean?
Outliers are followed by results that are closer to the average.
95
What is No Correlation?
There is no discernible relationship between the two variables.
96
What are Hallucinogens?
Drugs that cause an individual to sense things that are not actually there.
97
What are Opioids?
Drugs for pain relief that are highly addictive.
98
What are Depressants?
Drugs that reduce neural activity, causing drowsiness, muscle relaxation, and lowered breathing.
99
What are Stimulants?
Drugs that excite neural activity, increasing energy and irritability, and reducing appetite.
100
How do Antagonist Drugs work?
By blocking the release of neurotransmitters or by attaching to receptors and blocking binding.
101
What are Antagonist Drugs?
Drugs that decrease the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter.
102
How do Agonist Drugs work?
By acting like a neurotransmitter (binding to receptors) or by blocking the reuptake process.
103
What are Agonist Drugs?
Drugs that increase the effectiveness of a neurotransmitter.
104
What is the role of Endorphins?
Act as the body's natural painkillers and mood boosters.
105
What is the role of GABA?
The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming the brain and reducing anxiety.
106
What is the role of Epinephrine (Adrenaline)?
Controls alertness and arousal; affects heart rate and airways.
107
What are Inhibitory Neurotransmitters?
Decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential, leading to hyperpolarization.
108
What is the role of Glutamate?
The main excitatory neurotransmitter, crucial for learning and memory.
109
What are Excitatory Neurotransmitters?
Increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential through depolarization.
110
What is the role of Dopamine?
Involved in movement, motivation, reward, and pleasure; linked to schizophrenia, Parkinson's, and addiction.
111
What is the role of Acetylcholine (ACh)?
Involved in muscle action, learning, and memory; deficiency linked to Alzheimer's.
112
What is the Refractory Period (Hyperpolarization)?
The neuron cannot fire for a brief period of time.
113
What happens after the neuron reaches +30mV?
K+ exits the neuron, causing it to overshoot and enter the Refractory Period.
114
What is the resting potential charge?
-70mV.
115
What happens during Resting Potential?
The cell has a baseline charge, is not actively transmitting a signal, and uses ion channels and the Sodium-Potassium Pump.
116
What is the Sodium-Potassium Pump's action?
It pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in, maintaining the ion balance.
117
What are Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)?
Send signals from the CNS to the PNS.
118
What is the Refractory Period?
A brief period after an action potential when the neuron cannot fire again due to hyperpolarization.
119
What is Depolarization?
The process during an action potential where Na+ rushes into the neuron, making it less negative.
120
How does an Action Potential travel through a neuron?
From the Soma, through the Axon, to the Axon Terminal.
121
What is the Axon terminal?
Transmits signals to other neurons by emitting neurotransmitters.
122
What is the Myelin Sheath?
A fatty substance that insulates the axon and speeds up signal transmission.
123
What does the Axon do?
Carries signals away from the soma to the axon terminal.
124
What is a Reflex Arc?
A nerve pathway that allows the body to respond to a stimulus without thinking.
125
What is the function of the Nucleus in a neuron?
Contains genetic material (DNA) for cell development and function.
126
What do Dendrites do?
Receive information from other neurons and transmit electrical signals to the soma.
127
What is Multiple Sclerosis?
Damage to the myelin sheath causing muscle weakness, coordination problems, and fatigue.
128
What is the Soma of a neuron?
The cell body.
129
Describe the process of synaptic transmission.
An action potential signals neurotransmitter release into the synaptic gap, where they bind to receptors on the next neuron, then unbind and are either destroyed or reuptaken.
130
What are the types of neurons?
Sensory, Interneuron, and Motor neurons.
131
What are Neurons?
The basic functional unit of the nervous system, using electrical impulses and chemical signals.
132
What are Glial Cells?
Provide structure, insulation, and waste transportation for neurons; they do not process information.
133
What does the Parasympathetic Division do?
Helps save energy by relaxing muscles, slowing heart rate, and aiding digestion.
134
What is the Somatic Nervous System?
Controls voluntary movements.
135
What are Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)?
Send signals from the sensory receptors to the CNS.
136
What is the Parasympathetic Division?
Initiates the "Rest or Digest" response, saving energy.
137
What is the Autonomic Nervous System?
Controls involuntary responses.
138
What is the Somatic Nervous System?
Controls voluntary movements.
139
What is the Sympathetic Division?
Initiates the "Fight or Flight" response, getting the body ready for action.
140
What are Sensory Neurons?
Neurons that conduct signals from sensory organs to the CNS.
141
What are Motor Neurons?
Neurons that conduct signals from the CNS to muscles and glands.
142
What is the Spinal cord?
Conducts signals to and from the brain and controls reflex activities.
143
What is the role of Substance P?
Transmits pain signals from the sensory nerves.
144
What is an Action Potential?
A rapid, short-lasting electrical signal caused by changes in voltage across the cell membrane due to ion movement.
145
What is Reuptake?
The process of taking excess neurotransmitters left in the synaptic gap back into the presynaptic neuron.
146
What is Synaptic Transmission?
The process of converting and sending a signal from one neuron to another across the synapse.
147
What is Resting Potential?
The polarized state of a neuron's membrane when it is not transmitting a signal, with more K+ inside.
148
What is the Autonomic Nervous System?
Controls involuntary responses like heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.
149
What is the role of Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)?
Controls alertness and arousal; affects blood vessels.
150
What is the Action Potential (Depolarization) process?
Na+ enters the neuron, making it less polarized, and once the threshold is reached, the neuron fires, reaching +30mV.
151
What is a Chemical Synapse?
Uses neurotransmitters released from synaptic vesicles that bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.
152
What is an Electrical Synapse?
Uses electrical signals for immediate transmission of a signal.
153
What is the role of Serotonin?
Regulates mood, emotion, appetite, sleep, and arousal; undersupply linked to depression.
154
What is the Central Nervous System (CNS)?
Receives and processes sensory information, initiates responses, stores memories, and generates thoughts and emotions.
155
What is the Threshold?
The level of stimulation needed to trigger an action potential, typically -55mV.
156
What is Myasthenia Gravis?
Damage to acetylcholine receptors causing muscle weakness and fatigue.
157
What is the Endocrine System?
A system that sends hormones through the bloodstream to target larger areas of the body.
158
What does the Sympathetic Division do?
Gets your body ready for action with faster heartbeats, dilated pupils, and increased breathing.
159
What is a Synapse?
A small space between axon terminals and dendrites where signals are transmitted.
160
What does Oxytocin do?
Associated with love and social bonding.
161
What does Melatonin do?
Regulates sleep and circadian rhythms.
162
What does Ghrelin do?
Stimulates hunger.
163
What does Leptin do?
Inhibits hunger.
164
What are Withdrawal Symptoms?
Physical or mental symptoms experienced when stopping drug use.
165
What is Tolerance (related to drugs)?
Needing to ingest more dosage to achieve the same effect.
166
What is a sensation?
When an outside stimulus activates sensory neurons.
167
What is Insomnia?
Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep due to stress, medication, or irregular schedules.
168
What is Accommodation of the eye?
The eye's ability to change shape to focus light on the retina for different distances.
169
What is Prosopagnosia?
Face blindness, a visual disorder caused by damage to the occipital and temporal lobes.
170
What is EEG?
Uses electrodes on the scalp to record electrical signals from neurons firing, used for observing sleep and seizure.
171
What is the Fovea?
Center of the retina where most cones are located.
172
What is REM Sleep Behavior Disorder?
Acting out dreams during REM sleep, as the body is not paralyzed.
173
What is Somnambulism?
Sleepwalking, occurring during NREM Stage 3 sleep.
174
What is Sleep Apnea?
Difficulty falling or staying asleep due to breathing problems, hindering REM sleep.
175
What are Night Terrors?
Experiencing intense fear during sleep, leading to sleep deprivation and disrupted schedules.
176
What is Narcolepsy?
Struggling to sleep at night and uncontrollably falling asleep during the day.
177
What does Amplitude relate to in light?
Brightness.
178
What does Wavelength relate to in light?
Color.
179
What is sensory transduction?
The process of converting a sensation into neural signals.
180
What is Difference Threshold?
The minimum change between two stimuli for detection.
181
What is Sensory Adaptation?
The brain tuning out a continuous, unchanging stimulus.
182
What is Synesthesia?
Experiencing one sense through another, like seeing colors when hearing music.
183
What does the Pupil do?
Focuses light onto the retina.
184
What is the Cornea?
The outer layer of the eye that sticks out.
185
What is the Retina?
Layer of light-sensitive cells (photoreceptors) at the back of the eye.
186
What are Photoreceptors?
Light-sensitive cells in the retina that convert light into neural signals.
187
What are Rods?
Photoreceptors in the retina's periphery, responsible for dim light vision.
188
What is the Blind Spot?
Point where the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a gap in vision.
189
How do Photoreceptors work?
Convert light into neural impulses, which travel via optic nerve to the thalamus and visual cortex.
190
What is the Trichromatic Theory of color vision?
Color vision results from combinations of three color receptors: Red, Green, and Blue.
191
What is the Opponent Process Theory of color vision?
Color vision is based on three opponent pairings: Red/Green, Blue/Yellow, and Black/White.
192
What is the Electromagnetic Spectrum?
The range of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light.
193
What is Monochromatism?
Color blindness where only shades of one color can be seen, due to absent/malfunctioning cones.
194
What is Dichromatism?
Color blindness where only two colors can be seen, most commonly Red/Green.
195
What is Trichromatism?
The ability to see all colors.
196
What is Myopia?
Nearsightedness, where the lens focuses light in front of the retina; requires concave lenses.
197
What is Hyperopia?
Farsightedness, where the lens focuses light behind the retina; requires convex lenses.
198
What is Monaural Spectral Cue?
Head, ear shape filtering sound spectrum for localization.
199
What is the Auricle (Pinna)?
The visible outer part of the ear that captures and directs sound waves.
200
What is the Ear Canal?
Conducts sound waves from the outer ear to the eardrum.
201
What is the Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum)?
Vibrates when struck by sound waves.
202
What is the Middle Ear?
Contains three tiny bones (malleus, incus, stapes) that vibrate with the eardrum.
203
What is the Cochlea?
Spiral-shaped inner ear structure converting fluid vibrations into electrical impulses.
204
What are the Semicircular Canals?
Fluid-filled loops in the inner ear providing information about balance and head rotation.
205
What is the Vestibule?
Inner ear structure detecting gravity and linear acceleration for balance.
206
What is the Place Theory of hearing?
Different hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies, determining pitch.
207
What is the Frequency Theory of hearing?
Auditory nerve impulse frequency matches sound wave frequency, good for low pitches.
208
What is the Volley Theory of hearing?
Neurons fire in a staggered pattern to match higher sound frequencies.
209
What is Conductive Hearing Loss?
Sound waves blocked from reaching the inner ear (e.g., earwax, fluid).
210
What is Sensorineural Hearing Loss?
Damage to the cochlea's hair cells or auditory nerve.
211
What is Blindsight?
A visual disorder where the brain doesn't recognize what the eyes see, despite intact vision.
212
How does sound travel?
As waves through the movement of air molecules.
213
What is Wavelength in sound?
The distance between two peaks of a sound wave.
214
What is Frequency in sound?
The number of waves passing a point per second; relates to pitch.
215
What is Amplitude in sound?
The height of a sound wave; relates to loudness.
216
What is Pitch?
The highness or lowness of a sound, determined by frequency.
217
What is Loudness?
The intensity of a sound, determined by amplitude.
218
What is Sound Localization?
The brain determining the origin, direction, and distance of sounds.
219
What is Interaural Time Difference (ITDs)?
Brain detecting the time difference for sound to reach each ear for localization.
220
What is Interaural Level Difference (ILDs)?
Sound being louder in the closer ear and quieter in the farther ear due to head shadow.
221
What are Cochlear Implants?
Devices stimulating the auditory nerve directly, bypassing damaged inner ear parts.
222
What is Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)?
Difficulty processing auditory information within the brain.
223
What is Transduction in chemical senses?
Chemical signals of odor molecules converted into electrical signals for the brain.
224
How does smell travel?
Olfactory signals go directly to the olfactory bulb, temporal lobe, and limbic system.
225
What are Pheromones?
Chemical signals affecting behavior/physiology of others, related to attraction and communication.
226
What is Gustation?
The chemical sense of taste.
227
What are the 5 basic tastes?
Sweet, Sour, Bitter, Salty, Umami.
228
What is Oleogustus?
The potential sixth taste related to fatty acids.
229
What are Papillae?
Small structures on the tongue housing taste buds.
230
What are Taste Buds?
Contain taste receptor cells that detect taste.
231
How does taste work (process)?
Food molecules bind to receptors on taste cells, triggering neurotransmitter release to sensory neurons, then to Thalamus and gustatory cortex.
232
What is the Epidermis?
The outer skin layer protecting against pathogens and providing color.
233
What is the Dermis?
Connective tissue layer containing blood vessels and nerve endings, responsible for the sense of pain.
234
What is the Hypodermis?
Layer of fat insulating tissues and absorbing shocks.
235
What are Mechanoreceptors?
Sensory receptors responding to pressure.
236
What are Thermoreceptors?
Sensory receptors responding to temperature changes.
237
What happens when both Mechanoreceptors and Thermoreceptors are activated?
We feel it as HOT.
238
What are Nociceptors?
Pain receptors detecting harmful stimuli.
239
What is the Gate Control Theory of pain?
The spinal cord has a 'gate' that can block or allow pain signals to the brain.
240
What is Phantom Limb Sensation?
Experiencing pain in a body part that has been amputated.
241
What is a Neurological cause of phantom limb sensation?
Nerves of the missing limb becoming hyperactive or misinterpreting signals.
242
How does the brain contribute to phantom limb sensation?
The brain's 'map' of the body remains active, producing sensations as if the limb is still there.
243
What is the Vestibular Sense?
Sensing head rotation and movement via semicircular canals to maintain balance.
244
What is Kinesthesis?
Sensing the position and movement of body parts without constant visual attention.
245
What are Proprioceptors?
Sensory receptors in muscles and tendons providing kinesthetic information.
246
What are the 5 senses?
Sight, Hearing, Smell, Taste, Touch.
247
What is Habituation?
Reduced response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
248
What are Cones?
Photoreceptors in the fovea, responsible for color and clear vision.
249
What is Sensory Interaction?
Our senses working together.
250
What are CT Scans?
Uses X-rays to image the body.
251
What are the 4 stages of sleep?
Awake, NREM Stage 1, NREM Stage 2, NREM Stage 3, REM.
252
What occurs during NREM Stage 2 sleep?
Bursts of neural activity including sleep spindles and K-complexes.
253
What is the Restoration Theory of sleep?
Sleep repairs cellular damage, clears waste, and replenishes essential molecules.
254
What is the Memory Consolidation Theory of dreaming?
Dreams help process and strengthen memories, converting short-term to long-term.
255
What is fMRI?
Shows metabolic functions and structure of the brain.
256
What are PET Scans?
Show activation of different parts of the brain using radioactive glucose.
257
What is Circadian Rhythm?
A biological clock that changes blood pressure, regulates temperature, and maintains the sleep-wake cycle.
258
What is Frequency in EEG recordings?
The number of waves per second.
259
What is Amplitude in EEG recordings?
The strength of the wave.
260
What are the 4 types of brain waves during sleep?
Alpha, Beta, Theta, Delta.
261
What occurs during NREM Stage 1 sleep?
Light sleep, body relaxed, mind slows, hypnagogic sensations.
262
What occurs during NREM Stage 3 sleep?
Deep sleep, growth hormones produced, sleepwalking and sleeptalking.
263
What occurs during REM sleep?
External muscles paralyzed, internal muscles active, vivid dreams, paradoxical sleep.
264
What is REM Rebound?
Experiencing REM sleep more quickly after being deprived of it.
265
What is the Memory Consolidation Theory of sleep?
Sleep, especially REM, transfers memories from short-term to long-term storage.
266
What is Neural Reorganization in relation to sleep?
A proposed function of sleep related to brain structure and function.
267
What is the Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreaming?
Dreams are the brain's way of making sense of random neural activity during sleep.
268
What is Absolute Threshold?
The smallest amount of stimulation needed to notice a sensation 50% of the time.
269
What is the Weber-Fechner Law?
The difference between two stimuli must be a constant percent, not a constant amount.
270
What is Induced Movement?
A stationary object appears moving because of the motion of surrounding objects.
271
What is the Autokinetic Effect?
A stationary point of light in a dark environment appears to move due to difficulty maintaining stable perception without visual reference.
272
What is Apparent Movement?
We perceive motion even though nothing is actually moving, more so for objects in our peripheral vision.
273
What is Change blindness?
We fail to notice changes.
274
What is Inattentional blindness?
When our attention is divided, we often fail to notice stimuli in our visual field due to attention being focused elsewhere.
275
What is the Cocktail Party Effect?
Our brain continues to monitor the background for relevant or personal information, even if we aren't paying attention.
276
What is Selective Attention?
When we focus on a particular stimulus, we often tune out other stimuli in our environment.
277
What is Attention?
Attention also plays an important role in our perception.
278
How does culture influence the Müller-Lyer illusion?
In cultures where right angles are common, the outward fins resemble the 'far' corner, and inward fins resemble the 'near' corner.
279
What is the Müller-Lyer illusion?
The line with outward pointing fins is perceived as longer than the line with inward pointing fins.
280
How can perception be influenced?
Our perception can be influenced by internal and external factors like culture, mood, emotion, expectation, and environment.
281
What is Skewed Perception?
Information you already have will shape how you perceive new information.
282
What is Perceptual Set?
A mental shortcut your brain uses to quickly interpret what you are experiencing based on expectations or emotions.
283
What is Perception (Interpretation)?
The process of interpreting the information we obtain through our 5 senses (especially vision).
284
What is Sensation (Detection)?
The raw data or information that we receive from our sensory receptors.
285
What is Light Constancy?
Our ability to perceive an object's blackness, whiteness, and grayness as consistent, even under different lighting conditions.
286
What is Color Constancy?
We perceive the color of an object to remain consistent, even if the lighting changes.
287
What is Shape Constancy?
The tendency to perceive an object's shape as the same, even when it moves.
288
What is Size Constancy?
The brain's tendency to perceive objects as the same size, even as our distance from them varies.
289
What is Perceptual Constancy?
The ability to perceive objects as having consistent shape, size, color, and lightness, even when appearance changes.
290
What is Motion Parallax (Monocular Cue)?
Objects closer appear to move quickly; objects farther away appear to move slowly.
291
What is Gestalt Psychology?
How humans naturally group elements together to form meaningful patterns.
292
What is Relative Motion (Monocular Cue)?
As we move, stable objects may appear to move; objects ahead move with us, objects behind move backward.
293
What is Linear Perspective (Monocular Cue)?
Parallel lines appear to converge at a point in the distance.
294
What is Texture and Gradient (Monocular Cue)?
Clear, detailed objects appear closer; blurry, less detailed objects appear farther away.
295
What is Light and Shadow (Monocular Cue)?
Shading creates a sense of depth, assuming light comes from above.
296
What is Relative Height (Monocular Cue)?
Objects higher in the visual field appear farther away compared to objects lower.
297
What is Interposition (Occlusion) (Monocular Cue)?
When objects are blocked, the blocking object appears closer, the blocked object farther away.
298
What is Relative Size (Monocular Cue)?
Objects closer to us appear larger.
299
What are Monocular Cues?
Visual cues for depth perception that can be perceived with just one eye.
300
What is Retinal Disparity?
Each eye sees a slightly different view, allowing us to perceive depth.
301
What are Binocular Cues?
Visual cues for depth perception that we use when we employ both eyes.
302
What is Depth Perception?
The ability to perceive relative distance of an object in one's visual field.
303
What is Symmetry (Gestalt Principle)?
Symmetrical objects are perceived as one object, rather than individual, separate objects.
304
What is Figure and Background (Gestalt Principle)?
Our visual system separates what we see into the object of focus and the background.
305
What is Closure (Gestalt Principle)?
Our brain fills in missing information when viewing familiar but incomplete objects.
306
What is Continuity (Gestalt Principle)?
Our eyes naturally follow continuous lines or paths.
307
What is Proximity (Gestalt Principle)?
Objects placed close together are perceived as a single group; spaced apart, they are seen as separate.
308
What is Top-Down Processing?
Using prior knowledge and experiences to interpret the information.
309
What is Bottom-Up Processing?
Interpreting sensory information as it enters, without relying on prior knowledge or expectations.
310
What is Anomaly (in relation to Similarity)?
When an object is different from the others, it becomes the focal point and stands out.
311
What is Similarity (Gestalt Principle)?
We perceive a group of similar objects or patterns as one cohesive unit.
312
What are the 6 Gestalt Principles?
Similarity, Proximity, Continuity, Closure, Figure and ground, Symmetry.
313
What is Stroboscopic motion?
Illusion of movement created by showing a series of images in rapid succession.
314
What is the Phi Phenomenon?
Stationary images presented in rapid succession are perceived as a single, moving image.
315
What is Confirmation Bias?
A tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
316
What is Insight?
A sudden realization of a problem's solution, which is not strategy-based.
317
What are Availability heuristics?
Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
318
What are Representative heuristics?
Making judgments based on how much something resembles or represents a typical case or stereotype, specifically how similar it is to your prototype.
319
What are Heuristics?
Mental shortcuts based on past experiences that are speedy but prone to error.
320
What is Mental sets (Problem Solving)?
A cognitive framework that relies on past experiences and successful strategies to solve new problems.
321
What is an Algorithm?
A systematic, step-by-step approach to solving a problem; a methodical and logical rule or procedure.
322
What are Executive functions?
Cognitive processes that help individuals generate, organize, plan and carry out goal-directed behaviors, as well as engage in critical thinking.
323
What is Accommodation?
Changing a schema to incorporate new information.
324
What is Assimilation?
Fitting new information into existing schemas without changing them.
325
What does Schema guide?
Schema guides our expectations and actions.
326
What is a Schema?
A complex mental framework that organizes and interprets information about the world, acting as a mental framework built from past experiences.
327
What are Prototypes?
The most typical or basic example of a concept, serving as a mental image that illustrates the concept and acts as a cognitive reference point or benchmark.
328
What are Concepts?
Mental categories that help us organize and understand the world (objects, ideas, events, or people) under a classification.
329
What is Cognition?
All forms of knowing and awareness, including perceiving, remembering, conceiving, reasoning, judging, imagining, and problem solving.
330
What does the 'How to bring CONVERGENT & DIVERGENT THINKING TOGETHER' diagram illustrate?
This diagram illustrates a process of combining convergent and divergent thinking through stages like discover, define, develop, and deliver for better ideas.
331
What does the 'WHAT IS CONVERGENT VS. DIVERGENT THINKING?' image illustrate?
This image illustrates the difference between convergent thinking (finding one correct solution) and divergent thinking (finding many possible solutions).
332
What does the FRAMING EFFECT image illustrate?
The Framing Effect image illustrates how the presentation of information, like the fat content of yogurt, can shape interpretation and decisions.
333
What does the PRIMING EFFECT image illustrate?
The Priming Effect image illustrates how exposure to one stimulus influences response to a later stimulus, shown through different word associations.
334
What does the 'THINGS HAPPENING IN THE WORLD' image illustrate?
This image illustrates the availability heuristic, showing how news coverage can influence perceived likelihood of events.
335
What does the image with the woman and the hands illustrate?
The image with the woman and hands is related to heuristics and cognitive frameworks like OTTF and JFMA.
336
What does the flowchart illustrate?
The flowchart illustrates a systematic process for troubleshooting a lamp that doesn't work.
337
What does the 'Bird' image illustrate?
The image illustrates a bird, which can serve as a prototype for the concept of 'Bird'.
338
What is the format for the business proposition letter?
A letterhead, introduction, body, and conclusion.
339
What should the business proposition letter include?
At least 2 business propositions, details on how the $3 million would be used, and how it would benefit the students.
340
What does the parent in the business proposition scenario want?
A school program with real-life applications that allows students to hone international leadership skills and creative problem solving skills.
341
What is Fixation (functional fixedness)?
Limits a person to using an object only in its traditional way.
342
What are the 5 Components of Creativity?
Expertise, Imaginative thinking, Venturesome personality, Intrinsic motivation, and Creative environment.
343
What is Creativity?
When individuals create new original ideas and solutions.
344
What is Convergent thinking?
Narrowing down the possibilities to identify the single best solution.
345
What is Divergent thinking?
When a person explores many possible solutions, expanding the range of options for solving a problem.
346
What is Framing?
How information is presented can shape how we interpret and react to it, often influencing our decisions and judgments.
347
What is Semantic priming?
The influence of one word on the interpretation of another, related word.
348
What is Repetition priming?
When you are exposed to a specific stimulus, it is easier to recognize that same or similar stimulus later.
349
What is Priming?
Exposure to one stimulus influences how we respond to a later stimulus.
350
What is the Sunk-cost fallacy?
The tendency to continue to pursue an action in which you've already invested money, time, or resources, regardless of its future value.
351
What is the Gambler's fallacy?
If an event occurs more frequently than normal during a given period, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa.
352
What is Intuition?
An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning; a hunch or presumption.
353
What is Explicit Memory?
Information that we consciously recall. It includes Episodic memory (personal experiences) and Semantic memory (facts, knowledge).
354
What is Crystalized Intelligence?
Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.
355
What is Fluid Intelligence?
The ability to quickly reason and break down abstract problems.
356
What are Multiple abilities in intelligence?
Intelligence as a combination of distinct skills like emotional intelligence, creativity, and problem-solving.
357
What is General Intelligence (g factor)?
The idea that people who perform well in one cognitive area tend to perform well in others.
358
What is Intelligence?
The ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, solve problems, and apply knowledge.
359
What is the Misinformation Effect?
Altering a memory with misleading or false information, distorting the original memory.
360
What is Reconsolidation?
The process of updating a retrieved memory with new information before storing it again.
361
What is Constructive Memory?
Actively creating or reconstructing memories by filling gaps with existing knowledge and beliefs.
362
What is the Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon?
Knowing something but being unable to recall the exact name.
363
What is Infantile Amnesia?
Inability to remember personal experiences from early childhood.
364
What is Source Amnesia?
Remembering information but not where or how it was learned.
365
What is Alzheimer's disease?
A neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory and cognitive functions.
366
What happens to memory when the RIGHT hippocampus is damaged?
Struggle to remember visual information.
367
What happens to memory when the LEFT hippocampus is damaged?
Struggle to remember verbal information.
368
What is the Recency Effect?
The tendency to remember the last items in a series because they are still fresh.
369
What is the Primacy Effect?
The tendency to remember the first items in a series due to more rehearsal time.
370
What is the Serial Position Effect?
Remembering the first and last items in a series better than the middle items.
371
What is the Testing Effect?
Recalling information through testing improves long-term memory and retention more than restudying.
372
What is the Spacing Effect?
Distributing practice over time allows more time for encoding and improves memory consolidation.
373
What are Categories and Hierarchies?
Ways to help the brain connect related concepts, making storage and retrieval easier.
374
What is Chunking?
Grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units.
375
What is a Mnemonic device?
A technique for organizing information to make it easier to recall.
376
What is Semantic Encoding?
Focusing on the meaning or context of information.
377
What is Elaborative Encoding?
Pairing new information with prior knowledge.
378
What is Organizational Encoding?
Processing information in a specific sequence, like lists or groups.
379
What is Tactile Encoding?
Encoding information using the sense of touch.
380
What is Acoustic Encoding?
Encoding information using sound elements like rhymes or pitch.
381
What is Visual Encoding?
Encoding information using visual elements like font, color, or graphics.
382
What is Encoding?
The processing of information into the memory system.
383
What is Semantic processing?
The deepest level of processing, focusing on the meaning or context of the information.
384
What is Phonemic processing?
A deeper level of processing focusing on how the information sounds.
385
What is Structural processing?
A superficial level of processing focusing on the physical appearance of information.
386
What is the Episodic Buffer?
Temporary storage that integrates long-term memory with working memory, combining different types of information.
387
What is the Phonological Loop?
Handles verbal and auditory information, including the Phonological Store and Articulatory Rehearsal Process.
388
What is the Visuo-spatial Sketchpad?
Handles visual and spatial information, allowing us to visualize objects and their locations.
389
What is the Central Executive in the Working Memory Model?
Manages and coordinates other components, focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching activities, and integrating information.
390
What is the Working Memory Model?
An updated model explaining how our primary memory system processes and temporarily holds information for cognitive tasks.
391
What is Retrieval (in context of consolidation)?
The process of accessing long-term memories.
392
What is Memory Consolidation?
The transformation of short-term memories into long-term memories, often occurring during sleep.
393
What is Elaborative Rehearsal?
Connecting new information to something you already know.
394
What is Maintenance Rehearsal?
Repeatedly going over information to prevent forgetting.
395
What is Echoic Memory?
Auditory sensory memory lasting for 1-4 seconds.
396
What is Iconic Memory?
Visual sensory memory lasting for a fraction of a second.
397
What is Long-term Memory?
The ability to retrieve information later.
398
What is Short-term Memory?
Processing information from sensory memory through rehearsal.
399
What is Sensory Memory?
A fleeting record of to-be-remembered information.
400
What is the Multi-Store Memory Model?
Explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved through Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, and Long-term Memory.
401
What is Autobiographical memory?
Memories with more personal relevance, which are more memorable.
402
What are Flashbulb memories?
Vivid and clear memories formed around extremely stressful, traumatic, or emotional events.
403
What is Prospect Memory?
Remembering to perform future actions.
404
What is Implicit Memory?
Information or skills learned unconsciously. It includes Procedural memory (how to perform tasks) and Space, time/sequence, frequency.
405
What are the Multiple Intelligences?
Different types of intelligence including Musical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Verbal-Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Naturalistic, Intrapersonal, and Visual-Spatial.
406
What is Long Term Potentiation (LTP)?
Strengthening synaptic connections between neurons through repeated activation, leading to stronger neural connections for memory formation and learning.
407
What is the Information Processing Model?
Encoding (getting information into our brain), Storage (retaining that information), and Retrieval (getting the information back out).
408
What are retrieval cues?
A stimulus or hint that helps bring information from long-term memory into conscious awareness.
409
What is recognition?
Using retrieval cues to help access information.
410
What is recall?
Retrieving information without any cues or hints.
411
What is the Metacognition Cycle?
A cycle that includes assessing the task, planning the approach, applying strategies, and reflecting.
412
What is metacognition?
Awareness of your own cognitive process.
413
What is Retrograde Amnesia?
Inability to retrieve past information.
414
What is an Aptitude test?
Predicts future performance, assessing fluid intelligence.
415
What is Anterograde Amnesia?
Inability to form new memories.
416
What is an Achievement test?
Measures what someone knows at a specific point in time, assessing crystallized intelligence.
417
What is Standardization in testing?
Administering tests in a consistent way with standardized procedures and environments.
418
What is Validity in testing?
The degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.
419
What is Reliability in testing?
The consistency of test results over time or within the test itself.
420
What are the psychometric principles for IQ tests?
Reliability, Validity, and Standardization.
421
What is a Construct in intelligence testing?
A concept or characteristic that cannot be directly observed but is measured by indicators.
422
What is Stereotype lift?
Benefiting from positive stereotypes, leading to improved performance.
423
What is Stereotype threat?
The fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one's social group.
424
What is the Flynn Effect?
The observation that IQ test scores have improved over time due to better education and societal resources.
425
What is Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)?
A measure of intelligence that compares performance to others in the same age group.
426
What is Prenatal Development?
The process of growth from conception to birth, including the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.
427
What are Teratogens?
Substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a developing fetus.
428
What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?
A range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems caused by alcohol exposure during pregnancy.
429
How does Tobacco affect prenatal development?
It restricts oxygen flow to the fetus, resulting in low birth weight, underdevelopment, and premature birth.
430
What are Environmental factors affecting prenatal development?
External elements like air pollution, water contaminants, radiation, pesticides, and stress.
431
What is Maternal illness in pregnancy?
Any disease or infection a mother experiences that can affect the developing fetus.
432
What are Genetic mutations related to prenatal development?
Spontaneous or inherited changes causing genetic disorders like Down Syndrome or Turner Syndrome.
433
What are Infant Reflexes?
Involuntary movements that help with survival, which are neurological responses that typically stop by 4-6 months.
434
What is the Palmar Grasp reflex?
When a finger is placed in a baby's palm, the baby closes their hand around it.
435
What is the Plantar Grasp reflex?
When a finger is placed under a baby's toes, they curl their toes toward the base of the foot.
436
What is the Babinski Reflex?
When the sole of a baby's foot is stroked, their big toe moves upward and other toes fan out.
437
What is the Rooting Reflex?
When a baby's cheek is stroked near the mouth, they turn toward it with their mouth open.
438
What is Puberty?
The stage when an individual reaches sexual maturity and can reproduce, marked by significant physical, psychological, and emotional changes.
439
What is Imprint (for Non-human animals)?
When animals form an attachment to the first moving object they see as newborns.
440
What is a Critical or Sensitive Period?
Specific windows of time when the brain is especially receptive to acquiring certain skills.
441
What is the Visual Cliff Apparatus used for?
To test early ability in infants to perceive depth by creating an illusion of a drop-off.
442
What are Fine Motor Skills?
Smaller movements, such as holding a spoon, critical for tasks like feeding, drawing, or playing.
443
What are Gross Motor Skills?
Larger movements, such as crawling and walking, enabling navigation of the environment.
444
What is Gender Identity?
The personal sense of one's own gender.
445
How do researchers view Sexual Orientation?
As something a person cannot choose or change, likely a combination of genetic and environmental influences.
446
What does Asexual mean?
Not attracted to either sex.
447
What does Bisexual mean?
Attracted to both sexes.
448
What does Heterosexual mean?
If their attraction is toward the opposite sex.
449
What is Tummy Time?
When a baby spends time on their stomach during playtime, potentially developing neck and shoulder muscles.
450
What does Homosexual mean?
If a person is attracted to the same sex.
451
What is Sexual Orientation?
An individual's sexual attraction toward members of the same sex or different sex.
452
What are the main Socialization Agents?
Family, Schools and Peer groups, and Media.
453
What is Socialization?
The process of learning values, standards, and attitudes appropriate for a society.
454
What is Gender Schema Theory?
Children create mental categories for masculinity and femininity to understand their gender role and activities.
455
What is Sex?
The biological difference between males and females.
456
What is Menopause?
In middle adulthood, it marks the end of a woman's menstrual cycle and ability to conceive, often with hot flashes and mood changes.
457
What characterizes Adulthood?
It spans most of the lifespan, with a leveling off then decline in reproductive ability, mobility, reaction time, and sensory acuity.
458
What is an Adolescence Growth Spurt?
A rapid increase in height and weight during adolescence.
459
What are Secondary Sex Characteristics?
Traits indirectly related to reproduction, such as breast development or voice deepening.
460
What is Spermarche?
The first time a male ejaculates.
461
What is Menarche?
The first time a female menstruates.
462
What are Primary Sex Characteristics?
Characteristics directly related to the reproductive system and the ability to reproduce.
463
What does Chronological order mean?
How people develop in a sequence as they age, going through different life stages.
464
What is Developmental Psychology?
A branch of psychology that focuses on how people grow and change throughout their lives.
465
What theories are associated with Discontinuous development?
Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory and Erick Erickson's Stages of development.
466
What influences Continuous development (Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory)?
Development is influenced by social interactions and culture, occurring over time.
467
What is Discontinuous Development?
Development that occurs in distinct stages or steps.
468
What is Continuous Development?
Development that is gradual and smooth.
469
What are Longitudinal studies used for?
To gain insight into changes and patterns that occur over an extended period of time.
470
What did the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study find?
Some personality traits remain stable, while others change due to people's life experiences.
471
What is Stability and Change in development?
The question of whether early personality traits continue throughout life or change over time due to life experiences.
472
What did the Minnesota twin study find?
Genetics play a major role in personality and intelligence, as identical twins reared apart often have similar characteristics.
473
What is Nature and Nurture?
The debate on whether behaviors and traits are determined by genetics (nature) or environment (nurture).
474
What does Thematic issue mean?
Specific themes and topics that span across a person's life.
475
What is Gender?
The social, physical, and behavioral traits considered normal for men and women by society.
476
What is a Cross-sectional study?
An observational research method collecting data from a population at a single, specific point in time.
477
What is a Cohort effect?
A cohort is a group of individuals sharing common characteristics, typically in the same age range.
478
What is Parallel Play?
Parallel play is when young children play next to each other without direct interaction.
479
What is Schema?
Schema is a mental framework used to understand and organize information about the world.
480
What is Assimilation in Piaget's theory?
Assimilation is when new information is put into an existing schema, like adding a 'cat' category to your 'dog' schema.
481
What is Accommodation in Piaget's theory?
Accommodation is when new information does not fit an existing schema, requiring a new schema to be created, like adding a 'cat' category.
482
What are Jean Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development?
Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operational Stage, and Formal Operational Stage.
483
What is the Sensorimotor Stage?
From infancy to toddlerhood (0-2 years), children gain access to senses and develop object permanence.
484
What is Object Permanence?
Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
485
What is the Preoperational Stage?
From toddlerhood to early childhood (2-7 years), children use mental symbols, engage in pretend play, and develop animism and egocentrism.
486
What is Symbolic Thinking?
Symbolic thinking is the ability to use symbols (words, images, objects) to represent things not physically present.
487
What is Pretend Play?
Pretend play involves using imagination to act out scenarios with toys, objects, and other children.
488
What is Animism?
Animism is when human-like qualities are given to non-living things, common in pretend play.
489
What is Conservation?
Conservation is understanding that something stays the same amount even if its shape changes.
490
What is Reversibility?
Reversibility is the ability to mentally reverse an action, like understanding 4-2=2 after knowing 2+2=4.
491
What is Egocentrism?
Egocentrism is the inability to see the world from another person's point of view.
492
What causes Avoidant Attachment?
Avoidant attachment often happens when caregivers are emotionally distant.
493
What is Theory of Mind?
Theory of Mind is the ability to understand that others have different thoughts, feelings, and perspectives.
494
What is the Concrete Operational Stage?
From early childhood to late childhood (7-12 years), children think logically about real things and understand classification and seriation, but struggle with abstract concepts.
495
What is Classification?
Classification is organizing objects based on multiple attributes, like sorting by color and shape simultaneously.
496
What is Seriation?
Seriation is arranging items in quantitative order, such as from shortest to longest.
497
What is the Formal Operational Stage?
From late childhood to adulthood (12+ years), individuals engage in logical, abstract, and hypothetical thinking.
498
What is Deductive Reasoning?
Deductive reasoning starts with a general principle and applies it to specific situations to form a conclusion.
499
What is Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory?
Children are social learners who develop through interaction and scaffolding within sociocultural contexts.
500
What is Scaffolding in Vygotsky's theory?
Scaffolding is supporting a child to learn a new skill or concept to help them become self-reliant.
501
What is the Zone of Proximal Development?
The zone of proximal development is the range of tasks a child can do with guidance but not alone.
502
What is Crystallized Intelligence?
Crystallized intelligence, or general knowledge, tends to stay the same as a person gets older.
503
What is Fluid Intelligence?
Fluid intelligence, the ability to think and reason, declines as a person gets older.
504
What is Dementia?
Dementia is a broad term for cognitive disorders that significantly impair memory, reasoning, and other mental abilities.
505
What is Language?
Language is a shared system of arbitrary symbols that are rule-governed and generative.
506
What are Phonemes?
Phonemes are the smallest units of speech sound that differentiate words.
507
What are Morphemes?
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning or structure in a language.
508
What is Grammar?
Grammar is a set of rules that govern how words can be combined.
509
What is Syntax?
Syntax refers to the specific rules for arranging words and phrases into sentences.
510
What is Semantics?
Semantics is the interpretation of the meaning of words or sentences.
511
What is the difference between Deep and Surface Structure?
Surface structure is the way a sentence is arranged, while deep structure is the underlying meaning.
512
What is Cooing in language development?
Cooing (2-3 months) is the soft, repetitive vowel sound that infants make.
513
What is Babbling in language development?
Babbling (4-6 months) is when infants combine consonants and vowels.
514
What is the One-word stage?
The one-word stage (12-18 months) is when a child uses a single word to convey an entire idea (Holophrases).
515
What is Telegraphic speech?
Telegraphic speech (18-24 months) is when a child connects two or three words to form phrases.
516
What are Nonverbal gestures?
Nonverbal gestures are bodily actions or facial movements used to convey messages alongside or instead of speech.
517
What is Overgeneralization of language rules?
Overgeneralization occurs when a new language learner applies grammar rules too broadly.
518
What is Ecological System Theory?
Ecological system theory explains how the social environment influences development through different systems.
519
What is the Microsystem?
The microsystem involves groups with direct contact with the individual, like family and friends.
520
What is the Mesosystem?
The mesosystem includes the relationships between groups in the microsystem, like family disapproving of friends.
521
What is the Exosystem?
The exosystem consists of external environmental settings that indirectly affect an individual's life.
522
What is the Macrosystem?
The macrosystem encompasses cultural events affecting individuals, like customs, laws, and economic conditions.
523
What is the Chronosystem?
The chronosystem involves the influence of historical events and changes over one's life.
524
What are Individualistic Cultures?
Individualistic cultures focus on independence, autonomy, self-sufficiency, and individual accomplishments.
525
What are Collectivist Cultures?
Collectivist cultures reward contributions to families and communities.
526
What is Authoritarian Parenting?
Authoritarian parenting involves strict rules, little discussion, and punishment to enforce them.
527
What are the consequences of Authoritarian Parenting?
Children may have low self-esteem, trouble making decisions, and an emphasis on respect for elders.
528
What is Permissive Parenting?
Permissive parenting has fewer rules and expectations, giving children freedom and avoiding setting limits.
529
What are the consequences of Permissive Parenting?
Children may be more creative and feel loved but struggle with self-discipline and self-control.
530
What is Authoritative Parenting?
Authoritative parenting involves clear rules and expectations with room for discussion and input.
531
What are the consequences of Authoritative Parenting?
Children tend to have strong self-esteem, better self-regulation, and social skills.
532
What is Negligent Parenting?
Negligent parenting is being completely uninvolved in a child's life, playing little to no role.
533
What is the 'Strange Situation' Procedure?
The 'Strange Situation' is a research method to assess infant-caregiver attachment through separations and reunions.
534
What are Attachment Styles?
Attachment styles are formed during childhood and are shaped by the relationship between a child and their caregivers.
535
What is Secure Attachment?
Secure attachment involves a child feeling comfortable, exploring with a nearby caregiver, and being easily comforted upon reunion.
536
What are the benefits of Secure Attachment?
Secure attachment leads to better social skills and improved emotional regulation.
537
What is Avoidant Attachment?
Avoidant attachment is when children tend to avoid or ignore caregivers, showing little emotion.
538
What is Anxious (Ambivalent/Resistant) Attachment?
Anxious attachment involves over-dependence, extreme distress when separated, and resistance to comfort upon reunion.
539
What is Disorganized Attachment?
Disorganized attachment combines fear of abandonment and intimacy, leading to unpredictable and contradictory behaviors.
540
What is Temperament?
Temperament refers to a child's personality traits that play a role in attachment styles.
541
What is Easy Temperament?
Easy temperament involves being calm and adaptable, leading to more secure attachments.
542
What is Difficult Temperament?
Difficult temperament involves larger emotional reactions, making secure attachments harder to form.
543
What is Separation Anxiety?
Separation anxiety (6-18 months) is when a child feels nervous or fearful about being away from their caregiver.
544
What was Harlow's Monkey Study?
Harlow's study separated infant monkeys and gave them surrogate mothers (wire with food, cloth without) to assess attachment needs.
545
What did Harlow's Monkey Study show?
The study showed that the need for comfort and physical closeness outweighed the need for food in infant monkeys.
546
What is Pretend Play among peers?
Pretend play involves creating imaginary worlds and stories, acting out scenarios with others, learning social and communication skills.
547
What is Adolescent Egocentrism?
Adolescent egocentrism is focusing only on one's own perspective.
548
What is the Imaginary Audience?
The imaginary audience is the belief that teenagers are the center of attention and that everyone notices their imperfections.
549
What is the Personal Fable?
The personal fable is the belief that an individual's experiences are unique and cannot be fully understood by others.
550
What is Plot Armor?
Plot armor is the belief that challenges or setbacks will not happen to them, potentially leading to risky behaviors.
551
What is Identity?
Identity is the set of unique characteristics, behaviors, beliefs, and affiliations that form an individual's sense of self and continuity over time.
552
What influences Identity?
Identity is shaped by personal experiences, social roles, cultural background, values, and biological factors.
553
What are Marcia's Identity Development Stages?
Diffusion, Foreclosure, Moratorium, and Achievement.
554
What is Diffusion in Identity Development?
Diffusion is having no direction or commitment to an identity and not exploring possibilities.
555
What is Foreclosure in Identity Development?
Foreclosure is committing to one identity or idea without exploring other options.
556
What is Moratorium in Identity Development?
Moratorium is actively exploring identity and options without yet having a commitment.
557
What is Achievement in Identity Development?
Achievement is having set an identity and explored options, reaching a personal conclusion.
558
What is the Social Clock?
The social clock refers to societal expectations about when major life events should happen.
559
What is Emerging Adulthood?
Emerging adulthood is the period in the early 20s where individuals explore career paths, relationships, and identities.
560
How does Attachment Style influence adult relationships?
Secure attachment leads to easily forming relationships, while insecure attachment makes trusting others difficult.
561
What are Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE)?
ACE are stressful or traumatic events during childhood that can hinder healthy emotional expression and relationship formation.
562
What is Stigma?
Stigma is a set of negative and unfair beliefs held by a society or group about something.
563
What is Erikson's Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development?
Erikson's theory proposes that people must resolve psychosocial conflicts at each stage of lifespan.
564
What are the 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development?
Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Role Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair.
565
What is Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy)?
Developing trust in caregivers and the world by receiving comfort, food, and safety.
566
What is Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler)?
Developing a sense of personal control and independence by walking, talking, and doing things.
567
What is Initiative vs. Guilt (Early Childhood)?
Developing a sense of purpose and the ability to take initiative by asking questions and exploring.
568
What is Industry vs. Inferiority (Elementary/Middle School)?
Developing a sense of accomplishment and self-confidence by comparing abilities to peers.
569
What is Identity vs. Role Confusion (Teenage)?
Developing a strong sense of self and personal identity, with peer groups becoming important.
570
What is Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood)?
Forming intimate, loving relationships with others, entering careers, and starting a family.
571
What is Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle-aged Adults)?
Focusing on providing for the next generation and contributing to society.
572
What is Integrity vs. Despair (Old Age)?
Reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment and without major regrets.
573
What are Sigmund Freud's Three Parts of Personality?
Id, Ego, and Superego.
574
What does the Id do?
The Id demands instant gratification.
575
What does the Ego do?
The Ego moderates the demands of the Id.
576
What does the Superego do?
The Superego upholds moral standards.
577
What are Psychosexual Stages?
Psychosexual stages (Oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) shape personality through childhood experiences.
578
What are Defense Mechanisms?
Defense mechanisms are unconscious processes like repression and denial that protect the mind from anxiety.
579
What is Dream Analysis?
Dream analysis involves interpreting dreams to reveal unconscious desires and psychological conflicts.
580
What is the Oedipus Complex?
The Oedipus complex is a child's sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent.
581
What is Transference?
Transference occurs when patients project feelings for others onto therapists, offering insight into unresolved issues.
582
What is the prefrontal cortex's role in learning?
Involved with planning, decision making, and complex reasoning.
583
What is the amygdala's role in learning?
Involved when there is an emotional component, such as fear or excitement.
584
What is the hippocampus's role in learning?
Crucial for forming new memories, but does not store them.
585
What is long-term depression?
When certain connections are not often used, the connections between neurons become weakened.
586
What is long-term potentiation?
When two neurons fire together frequently, the connection between them becomes stronger.
587
What is neuroplasticity?
Our brain's ability to change and reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.
588
What is a cognitive map?
A mental picture of an environment, often created unconsciously.
589
What is latent learning?
An individual learns information or skills without reinforcement, but it is not immediately evident.
590
What is insight learning?
A sudden solution or realization that pops into an individual's mind when everything just clicks.
591
How does observing others affect our attitude?
We often internalize the different reactions that people give to particular situations.
592
How does observing others affect our confidence?
It can boost our own self-efficacy since through observing, we gain confidence in our own ability.
593
What is vicarious conditioning?
Learning through observing another person's reactions, attitudes, and emotional responses to a stimulus.
594
What is observational learning?
When individuals watch the actions of others and see the outcomes of those actions, then copy or imitate the behavior.
595
What is Social Learning Theory?
People can learn new behaviors and information by watching and observing others, instead of having to do the actions themselves.
596
How can learned helplessness be fixed?
By building confidence through completing one small task at a time.
597
What is learned helplessness?
When an individual or animal believes they cannot influence or change an event, even when the reality is they can.
598
When is partial reinforcement best used?
To make a new behavior resistant to extinction.
599
When is continuous reinforcement best used?
To quickly establish a new behavior.
600
What is variable-ratio reinforcement?
Reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of correct behaviors.
601
What is fixed-ratio reinforcement?
Reinforcement is given after a specific number of behaviors.
602
What is variable-interval reinforcement?
Reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time.
603
What is fixed-interval reinforcement?
Reinforcement is given after a set amount of time has passed, regardless of behavior.
604
What is partial reinforcement?
When reinforcement does not occur with every correct behavior.
605
What is continuous reinforcement?
When reinforcement is provided every time a correct behavior is performed.
606
What is a reinforcement schedule?
When and how reinforcers are given to an individual for a behavior.
607
What is intrinsic motivation?
When an individual has a desire to do something for their own sake; there is no external reward or punishment.
608
What is extrinsic motivation?
When an individual is motivated to perform a behavior because of an external reward or to avoid an external punishment.
609
What is coincidental reinforcement?
Reinforcement that occurs when a behavior is mistakenly reinforced because it coincides with a positive outcome, even though the behavior itself is not the cause.
610
What are superstitious behaviors?
When people mistakenly believe that an action leads to a certain outcome, even though the two things are not actually connected.
611
What is instinctive drift?
Certain natural behaviors are hardwired into an animal and can be difficult to shape if they go against the animal's natural instinct.
612
What is a Skinner Box?
Also known as an Operant Conditioning Chamber, used for training rats and pigeons.
613
What is shaping?
When reinforcement is used to gradually teach a complex behavior by rewarding small steps that lead toward the final desired behavior.
614
What is reinforcement generalization?
A response that has been reinforced in the presence of one stimulus also occurs in the presence of a similar stimuli.
615
What is generalization in operant conditioning?
The individual applies what they learned through conditioning to similar situations.
616
What is reinforcement discrimination?
An individual learns to respond only to specific cues or signals that indicate when a behavior will be reinforced.
617
What is discrimination in operant conditioning?
The individual can tell the difference between which behaviors get rewarded and which do not.
618
What are secondary reinforcers?
Learned rewards that are associated with primary reinforcers, such as money.
619
What are primary reinforcers?
Things that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic needs like food, water, or warmth.
620
What is negative punishment?
Removing something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
621
What is positive punishment?
Adding something to decrease the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
622
What is negative reinforcement?
Removing something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
623
What is positive reinforcement?
Adding something to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring.
624
What is the Law of Effect?
Behaviors resulting in positive outcomes become strengthened while those followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
625
What is operant conditioning?
Learning by associating behaviors with their consequences; behaviors are shaped by their consequences through reinforcement or punishment.
626
What is habituation?
When an organism gradually stops responding as strongly to a stimulus that is repeated over time.
627
What is biological preparedness?
A survival technique where people and animals naturally form associations between certain stimuli and responses to avoid harmful foods in the future.
628
What are taste aversions?
An individual learns to avoid a particular taste, flavor, or food because they are associated with illness.
629
What is counterconditioning therapy?
A behavioral therapy technique that replaces an unwanted behavior or emotion with a new, desired one by creating a new association with a stimulus.
630
What is second-order conditioning?
When a neutral stimulus that has become a conditioned stimulus is paired with another neutral stimulus.
631
What is stimulus discrimination?
When an individual learns to differentiate between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli.
632
What is stimulus generalization?
The tendency to respond to a similar stimulus in the same way as a previously learned stimulus.
633
What is spontaneous recovery?
The reappearance after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response.
634
What is extinction?
When the conditioned response gradually diminishes because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
635
What is acquisition (learning)?
The process of developing a connection between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
636
What is a conditioned response (CR) / Learned Response?
A learned reaction to a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
637
What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a learned response on its own.
638
What is an unconditioned response (UR)?
A natural response that happens without any learning.
639
What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?
An automatic, natural stimulus that causes a reaction without prior learning.
640
What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?
A stimulus that naturally elicits no response from a subject.
641
What is a response?
Any behavior or reaction exhibited due to a specific stimulus.
642
What is a stimulus?
An event, object, or thing that triggers a specific reaction.
643
What is conditioning?
A learning process where behaviors are modified through forming associations between stimuli.
644
What is the Behavioral Perspective?
Focuses on how observable behaviors are learned and shaped by the environment through conditioning and reinforcement.

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