AP Psychology Unit 4

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This deck includes 141 flashcards covering explanatory style, bias, comparison, and related concepts. Use it to review key Psychology ideas, focus on weak cards, and prepare for your exam with StudyLess.

1. 01

   What is fundamental attribution error?

   Fundamental attribution error is when we overemphasize internal factors for others and the opposite for ourselves.

2. 02

   What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?

   Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Person's expectations influence their behavior -> expectations come true -> actions fulfill your initial thought.

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   What is person perception?

   Person perception is how we perceive other people.

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   What is social comparison?

   Social Comparison: Evaluate ourselves by comparing to others.

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   What is an optimistic explanatory style?

   Optimistic explanatory style views bad events as temporary problems and focuses on external factors. Failures are seen as situational attributions. Similar to self-serving bias.

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   What is the mere exposure effect?

   Mere exposure effect is when repeatedly exposed to a stimulus, people start to like it; people tend to like familiarity. This is the reason why advertisers repeatedly run the same ad over and over again: to be more familiar with the product.

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   What is relative deprivation?

   Relative Deprivation: Feeling of missing out on resource opportunities compared to others

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   What are dispositional attributions?

   Dispositional attributions are internal factors (my bad).

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   What is external locus of control?

   External locus of control is when outside factors determine the outcome. This can lead to learned helplessness.

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    What are the three common biases?

    The three common biases are self-serving bias, actor-observer bias, and fundamental attribution error.

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    What are explanatory styles?

    Explanatory styles are the way an individual explains or rationalizes different events or situations in life.

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    What is actor-observer bias?

    Actor-observer bias is when we use situational attribution to explain our own actions but dispositional attributions for someone else.

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    What is the Pygmalion effect?

    Pygmalion Effect: Higher expectations can lead to improved performance, acting as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

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    What are situational attributions?

    Situational attributions are external factors (not my fault).

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    What is attribution theory?

    Attribution theory is used to interpret and explain the causes of events and behaviors.

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    What is downward comparison?

    Downward Comparison: Compare themselves to someone that they believe is worse off.

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    What is internal locus of control?

    Internal locus of control is when their actions directly affect the outcome. This leads to more initiative in life, higher self-efficacy, and reduced feelings of helplessness.

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    What is a pessimistic explanatory style?

    Pessimistic explanatory style views bad events as more permanent. Failures are seen as dispositional attributes.

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    What is the Rosenthal Experiment?

    More teacher attention -> positively impacted student outcomes.

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    What is self-serving bias?

    Self-serving bias is when we focus on positive elements when we succeed and attribute it to our internal factors. If we fail, we do the opposite. Protects self-esteem but prevents from learning.

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    What is upward comparison?

    Upward Comparison: Compare to people they believe is better off.

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    What is an attitude?

    A relatively stable, learned evaluation encompassing our beliefs.

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    How does group cohesion affect conformity?

    Feeling a sense of belonging to a group increases the tendency to conform.

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    How does expertise affect conformity?

    Lack of expertise causes one to rely on others.

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    How does group size affect conformity?

    Larger groups often create stronger pressure to conform, especially when the group is greater than 3 but up to 7.

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    What is out-group homogeneity bias?

    It is the tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are.

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    What is discrimination?

    Actions based on prejudice that is illegal.

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    What is cultural relativism?

    The idea that no culture is superior to others.

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    What are stereotypes?

    Generalized beliefs of a group of people. They can be positive or negative.

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    What are social norms?

    Unwritten rules in a society.

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    What is ethnocentrism?

    Believing your culture is better than others.

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    How does authority affect conformity?

    Conform more when there are individuals with power.

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    What is in-group bias?

    The tendency to favor people in our own-group.

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    What is implicit prejudice?

    Having negative feelings without being aware of it.

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    What is conformity?

    Tendency to align behaviors with the norms or standards of a group.

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    What is prejudice?

    A stereotype that is negative towards a group and its members.

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    What is belief perseverance?

    Tendency to maintain a belief despite evidence that clearly contradicts it.

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    What is an in-group?

    The group you belong to.

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    What is an out-group?

    A group outside of your own group.

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    What is an explicit attitude?

    Beliefs that the individual is aware of.

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    What is an implicit attitude?

    Beliefs that the individual is not aware of.

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    What is the Just-World Phenomenon?

    It is the tendency to think that the world is a just place and things are the way they are for a reason. It can lead to victim-blaming (they deserved it).

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    How does unanimity of the group affect conformity?

    If a group displays similar responses, it increases the chance of conforming.

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    What is explicit prejudice?

    People are aware of it.

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    What is cognitive dissonance?

    Mental discomfort when having conflicting beliefs.

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    What is the Halo Effect?

    A cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences how we think about them (Steve Jobs).

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    What is obedience?

    Obedience is how individuals respond to authority.

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    What is a tip for negotiation?

    Focus on interests, not positions.

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    What is the Peripheral Route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

    Emotions to persuade someone.

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    What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

    This model explains how people are persuaded (central route vs. peripheral route).

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    What are positions?

    Stated demand.

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    What is Informational Influence?

    People conform because they believe others have more accurate info.

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    What is BATNA?

    Best alternative to negotiated agreement (next best option).

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    What is the Foot-in-the-Door Technique?

    Small request first -> Move on to larger request.

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    What are some obedience experiments?

    1. The Milgrim Experiment 2. The Stanford Experiment

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    What factors influence obedience?

    1. Proximity: How close the authority figure and the victim are 2. Legitimacy: The perceived legitimacy of the authority 3. Group Influence: Presence of others who obey or disobey

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    What is the Door-in-the-Face Technique?

    Start with large (unreasonable) request -> Move to smaller request.

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    How does a stronger BATNA affect negotiation?

    Stronger BATNA leads to a stronger position.

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    What is Normative Influence?

    A person's desire to be liked & accepted by a group. For example, you act like a bully.

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    What is Social Influence Theory?

    Social Influence Theory is about how and why people are persuaded by others.

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    What is the Central Route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model?

    Logic to persuade.

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    Why do people obey?

    1. Fear of consequence: Avoiding punishments 2. Perceived Authority: Status, uniform, or setting 3. Diffusion of responsibility: ex. Nazis ordered 4. Social Norms

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    What are interests?

    Underlying needs.

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    What is Groupthink?

    Groupthink is when a group prioritizes consensus over critical evaluation.

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    What is Group Polarization?

    Group Polarization is the tendency to become more extreme in a group due to constant support.

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    What is the Bystander Effect?

    The Bystander Effect is when individuals are less likely to offer help when other people are present.

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    What is the False Consensus Effect?

    The False Consensus Effect is overestimating how much others share their own beliefs.

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    What is Social Loafing?

    Social Loafing is when individuals are in groups, they end up trying less since they can rely on others.

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    What is Social Facilitation?

    Group of people -> perform better (marathon)

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    What is Deindividuation?

    Deindividuation is when an individual in a group loses their sense of self-awareness.

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    What is Diffusion of responsibility?

    Diffusion of responsibility is when an individual feels less responsible for taking actions.

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    What are social traps?

    Social traps are when people act in their own short-term interests disregarding the long-term negative consequences (carbon emissions, overfishing, and cheating).

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    What is the Humanistic Perspective?

    Emphasizes the inherent goodness of people & their desire to grow to reach their full potential.

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    What methods do Humanistic Psychologists use?

    Qualitative methods (interviews) & Q-sort technique. Using qualitative methods can compare real self with ideal self.

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    What are superordinate goals?

    Superordinate goals are ultimate goals.

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    What is denial?

    Denying reality (ex. parents don't accept their child had passed).

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    What is Congruence?

    Alignment with ideal self & actual self.

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    What is Conditional Positive Regard?

    Acceptance or approval is given only if the individuals meet certain conditions.

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    What is the Ego?

    Reality (conscious). It regulates impulses & mediates between the Id & Superego.

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    What is projection?

    Seeing own flaws on someone else (ex. Ur attracted to someone else -> accuse your partner for infidelity).

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    What is displacement?

    Redirecting emotions to someone else (ex. upset on boss -> frustration on family).

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    What is Incongruence?

    Large gap between ideal self & actual self.

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    What is Unconditional Positive Regard?

    Accepting and valuing someone without any conditions or requirements.

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    What is the Superego?

    Morality (preconscious). It is based on societal expectations.

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    What is sublimation?

    Transform unacceptable urges into socially acceptable/productive activities.

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    What is Self-Actualization?

    Individual is motivated to strive for their full potential.

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    What is the psychodynamic perspective according to Freud?

    Person's personality & behavior is shaped by conscious & unconscious mind.

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    What is repression?

    Unconsciously suppress unpleasant memories (ex. child not have memory of abuse).

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    What does Industrial Organizational Psychology specialize in?

    It specializes in understanding how human behavior in work settings influences individuals.

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    What is rationalization?

    Justifies an uncomfortable thought (ex. rejected by dream school -> claim you didn't want to go).

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    What is an altruistic act?

    An altruistic act is when an individual does a selfless act for the well-being of others.

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    What are subordinate goals?

    Subordinate goals are the specific, actionable steps for superordinate goals.

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    What is Self-Transcendence?

    Individual goes beyond their own self-interest (religious).

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    What is the Id?

    Instinct (unconscious). It seeks immediate gratification. Ignores morality & consequences.

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    What is reaction formation?

    Acting the opposite (ex. acting cool & dismissive to crush).

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    What is regression?

    Become baby when stressed (ex. Eat more in finals week).

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    What is Self-Actualizing Tendency?

    An innate drive for self-actualization

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    What is Factor Analysis?

    Identify cluster of related questions (analyzing responses to similar questions).

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    What is Agreeableness?

    Trustworthiness, altruism, kindness, and affection.

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     What is Neuroticism?

     Tendency to remain calm in stressful situations.

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     What is Self-Esteem?

     How people feel about their abilities, accomplishments, and personality.

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     What is Openness?

     Imagination, creativity, and curiosity.

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     What is Personality Inventory?

     List of questions that measure personality (MBTI).

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     What is Conscientiousness?

     Organization, dependability, discipline.

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     What is Trait Theory?

     Personality is made up of stable, measurable traits

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     What is Extraversion?

     Person's sociability.

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     What is Social-Cognitive Theory?

     People learn by observing others and behavior is shaped by the interaction between the three factors (Cognition, behaviors, environment).

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     What does OCEAN stand for in The Big Five Theory of Personality?

     Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

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     What is Likert Scale?

     Qualitative measure -> Quantitative measure.

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     What is Self-Concept?

     How a person sees and describes themselves.

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     What is Self-Efficacy?

     An individual's belief in their ability.

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     What is Disinhibition?

     Disinhibition is a desire for unrestrained social and sexual experiences, often involving a loss of self-control.

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     What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?

     The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance increases with arousal, but only up to a certain point.

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     What is the main idea of Drive Reduction Theory?

     Drive Reduction Theory suggests that we want to maintain homeostasis, which drives behavior.

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     What is an Approach-Approach Conflict?

     An Approach-Approach Conflict is when a choice is between two desirable options (W-W).

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     What is motivation?

     Motivation is what pushes us to take action.

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     What is Arousal Theory?

     Arousal Theory states that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

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     What are Primary Needs (Instincts)?

     Primary needs are biological needs such as water, food, or sleep.

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     What is an Approach-Avoidance Conflict?

     An Approach-Avoidance Conflict occurs when a single goal has both desirable (W) and undesirable (L) aspects.

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     What is Experience Seeking?

     Experience Seeking involves seeking novel experiences.

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     What is an Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict?

     An Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict is when a choice is between two undesirable options (L-L).

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     What is a Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict?

     A Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict involves choosing between two options, where each option has both positive and negative aspects.

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     What is Sensation-Seeking Theory?

     Sensation-Seeking Theory proposes that there are 4 types of sensation seeking, and different people have different interests.

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     What are the four types of conflicts in Motivational Conflict Theory?

     The four types of conflicts are: 1. Approach-Approach Conflict (W-W) 2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict (L-L) 3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict (Single goal has both W and L) 4. Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict (Two options, each possessing both positive & negative aspects)

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     What are Secondary Needs?

     Secondary needs are psychological needs, including approval, love, and a sense of belonging.

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     What does Self-Determination Theory focus on?

     Self-Determination Theory focuses on needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are forms of intrinsic motivation.

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     What is Boredom Susceptibility?

     Boredom Susceptibility is the inability to tolerate routine, repetition, or monotonous situations.

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     What is Incentive Theory?

     Incentive Theory relates to extrinsic motivation.

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     What is Motivational Conflict Theory (Kurt Lewin)?

     Motivational Conflict Theory, developed by Kurt Lewin, suggests people are motivated to take action to resolve conflicts.

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     What is Thrill or Adventure Seeking?

     Thrill or Adventure Seeking involves seeking intense physical sensations.

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     What is the universality of emotion?

     Certain emotions are recognized regardless of culture.

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     Describe the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of emotion.

     Stimulus leads to physiological arousal, which is then followed by cognitive labels, resulting in emotion.

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     What is emotion?

     Emotion is the interpretation of internal and external factors.

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     What is the Broaden-and-Build Theory of emotion?

     This theory states that positive emotions broaden our thought-action repertoires and build personal resources.

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     Describe the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion.

     Physiological and cognitive experiences occur simultaneously after a stimulus.

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     What are Display Rules?

     Display rules are rules on whether you can express emotions.

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     What is the Facial-Feedback Hypothesis?

     Facial expressions can influence the emotional experience.

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     Describe the James-Lange Theory of emotion.

     Stimulus leads to a physiological response, which then leads to emotion.

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     What are Elicitors of Emotion?

     Elicitors of emotion are stimuli that trigger an emotional response.

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     How do negative emotions affect focus according to the Broaden-and-Build Theory?

     Negative emotions narrow focus to focus and solve a problem.

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     List some universally recognized emotions.

     Anger, Disgust, Sadness, Happiness, Surprise, Fear, Contempt