Summer Assignment: AP Biology
by @test09
186
0
2
Jun 19, 2026
About this deck
This deck includes 186 flashcards covering potential energy, atomic mass, atomic number, and related concepts. Use it to review key Chemistry ideas, focus on weak cards, and prepare for your exam with StudyLess.
Study this deck in StudyLess
Save to your library and review with FSRS spaced repetition.
Flashcards
186 total- 01
Atomic number
Number of protons
- 02
Essential element
Elements that an organism needs to live a healthy life and reproduce
- 03
Electron
A fundamental, negatively charged subatomic particle
- 04
Element
Substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
- 05
Atomic mass
The total mass of an atom
- 06
Which has more potential energy: boy at the top of a slide or boy at the bottom?
Boy at the top
- 07
Which has more potential energy: electron in the first energy shell or electron in the third energy shell?
Electron in the third shell
- 08
Atomic mass of helium
4.0026
- 09
Trace element
Elements required by an organism in only minute quantities
- 10
Compound
A substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
- 11
Subatomic particle directly involved in chemical reactions between atoms
Electrons
- 12
Isotope
Different forms of the same element
- 13
Electron shells
A fixed region or energy level surrounding an atom's nucleus where electrons orbit
- 14
Energy
The capacity to cause change
- 15
Which has more potential energy: water or glucose?
Glucose
- 16
Atomic number of helium
2
- 17
How many valence electrons does sodium have?
1
- 18
Potential energy
The energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure
- 19
What determines the chemical behavior of an atom?
The distribution of electrons in the atom's electron shells.
- 20
Electronegativity
The attraction of a particular atom for the electrons of a covalent bond
- 21
Difference between nonpolar and polar covalent bonds
Nonpolar covalent: Electrons are shared equally (same electronegativity). Polar covalent: Electrons of the bond are not shared equally (different electronegativity).
- 22
Describe the process of forming an ionic bond between sodium and chloride.
An electron is transferred from sodium to chloride, forming a cation (Na+) and an anion (Cl-), resulting in an ionic bond.
- 23
Four elements making up 96% of all living matter
Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
- 24
Proton
A tiny, positively charged subatomic particle found inside the center of every atom
- 25
Neutron
A subatomic particle found inside the nucleus with no electrical charge
- 26
Carbon atom properties: atomic mass, atomic number, electrons, neutrons
Atomic mass: 12, Atomic number: 6, Electrons: 6, Neutrons: 6
- 27
Matter
Anything that takes up space and has mass
- 28
Explain van der Waals interactions.
Interactions between ever-changing regions of positive and negative charge that enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another. Individually weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together.
- 29
What is meant by dynamic equilibrium?
The reactions are still going on in both directions but do not affect the concentrations of reactants and products.
- 30
Why is molecular shape crucial in biology, using morphine and endorphins as examples?
Molecular shape determines how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another with specificity. Morphine has a similar shape to endorphins, allowing them to bind to the same specific receptor molecules on brain cells.
- 31
Order the following bonds and interactions from strongest to weakest: hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, covalent bonds, ionic bonds.
Strongest: Covalent bonds, Ionic bonds, Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions: Weakest
- 32
Define anion and cation. Which is the anion in the NaCl example?
Anion: Negatively charged ion. Cation: Positively charged ion. In the NaCl example, Cl- is the anion.
- 33
What is a hydrogen bond?
A noncovalent attraction between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.
- 34
Why is water considered a polar molecule?
The unequal sharing of electrons due to oxygen's higher electronegativity creates partial positive charges on hydrogen and a partial negative charge on oxygen.
- 35
Which element is most electronegative in water?
Oxygen
- 36
What does a double bond mean?
Forms a molecule by sharing two pairs of valence electrons.
- 37
Molecule
Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
- 38
How many protons does sodium have?
11
- 39
Solvent definition
The dissolving agent of a solution.
- 40
Solution definition
A liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
- 41
In coffee with sugar, what is the solvent and what is the solute?
Coffee is the solvent, and sugar is the solute.
- 42
Hydrophilic definition
Any substance that has an affinity for water.
- 43
Explain why water is such a fine solvent.
The partially negative oxygens attract cations, and the partially positive hydrogens attract anions, allowing water molecules to surround and shield individual ions.
- 44
Hydrophobic definition
Any substance that does not have an affinity for water (nonionic & nonpolar substances that repel water).
- 45
Why is water considered polar?
Due to the unequal sharing of electrons (oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen) and its bent shape.
- 46
Why does ice float?
Because it is less dense than liquid water; water expands as it solidifies.
- 47
Explain why ice floats, focusing on the critical temperature of 4°C.
Above 4°C, water behaves like other liquids. As it cools from 4°C to 0°C, molecules slow down and hydrogen bonds lock them into a crystalline lattice, expanding the volume and making ice less dense than liquid water.
- 48
How does hydrogen bonding contribute to water's high specific heat?
Heat must be absorbed to break hydrogen bonds, and is released when they form, thus small temperature changes occur as heat is absorbed/released to disrupt/form bonds.
- 49
How does water's specific heat compare to alcohol's?
Water's specific heat (1 cal/(g*°C)) is unusually high compared to alcohol's (0.6 cal/(g*°C)).
- 50
Solute definition
The substance that is dissolved.
- 51
What is a polar molecule?
A molecule with an unevenly distributed charge.
- 52
How does water's high specific heat contribute to the moderation of temperature?
Large bodies of water absorb/release heat with minimal temperature change, stabilizing temperatures and creating a favorable environment for marine life.
- 53
Explain hydrogen bonding.
Two molecules are held together as the partially positive hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to a partially negative oxygen of a nearby molecule.
- 54
Cohesion definition
The hydrogen bonds holding the substance together.
- 55
Heat of vaporization definition
The quantity of heat a liquid must absorb for 1g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state.
- 56
Why is the property of ice floating important for life on Earth?
If ice sank, ponds and oceans would freeze solid from the bottom up, making life impossible.
- 57
What does it mean that water has a high specific heat?
Water requires a lot of heat to change its temperature by 1°C for 1g.
- 58
How many hydrogen bonds can a single water molecule form?
Four
- 59
Adhesion definition
The clinging of one substance to another.
- 60
What is demonstrated when you see beads of water on a waxed car hood?
Both cohesion (water clinging to itself) and adhesion (water clinging to the car).
- 61
Which property explains the ability of a water strider to walk on water?
Surface tension, due to water molecules being hydrogen-bonded to each other and the water below, but not the air above.
- 62
Specific heat definition
The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of that substance to change its temperature by 1°C.
- 63
Evaporation definition
The transformation from a liquid to a gas.
- 64
What is evaporative cooling?
As a liquid evaporates, the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down.
- 65
List two effects of evaporation on living organisms.
1. Cooling of plant tissues as water evaporates from leaves. 2. Dissipation of body heat in humans through sweat evaporation.
- 66
Calorie definition
The amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1°C.
- 67
Explain why oil floats on water in terms of hydrogen bonding.
Oil molecules have relatively nonpolar covalent bonds, preventing them from forming hydrogen bonds with water and causing them to repel water.
- 68
Major source of acid precipitation
Burning of fossil fuels releasing CO2 into the atmosphere.
- 69
How does the blood buffering system minimize pH changes when CO2 increases?
Excess H+ combines with bicarbonate (HCO3-) to reform H2CO3, stabilizing pH.
- 70
What two ions form when water dissociates?
Hydronium (H3O+) and hydroxide ions (OH-)
- 71
Concentration of H+ and OH- ions in pure water at 25°C
1.0 * 10^-7M
- 72
Definition of pH
The negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration [H+]
- 73
Relationship between H+ and OH- concentrations in water
[H+][OH−] = 10^–14
- 74
Definition of acid
Substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
- 75
Definition of base
Substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution
- 76
pH scale logarithmic nature
Each numerical change represents a 10X change in ion concentration.
- 77
Definition of molarity
The number of moles of solute per liter of solution
- 78
Effect of CO2 emissions on marine life
Dissolves in seawater, forms carbonic acid, lowers ocean pH, leading to coral reef disappearance and loss of biodiversity.
- 79
Function of buffers
Minimize changes in H+ and OH- concentrations by accepting excess H+ or donating H+ when depleted.
- 80
Definition of acid precipitation
Precipitation that is unusually acidic due to atmospheric pollutants.
- 81
What distinguishes cis-trans isomers?
Difference in arrangement about a double bond; cis-isomers have the two X's on the same side, trans-isomers have them on opposite sides.
- 82
What was the conclusion of Stanley Miller's experiment?
Organic molecules, such as amino acids, could be synthesized abiotically on early Earth.
- 83
What is a hydrocarbon?
A molecule consisting of only carbon and hydrogen (hydrophobic).
- 84
How many valence electrons does carbon have?
4 valence electrons.
- 85
How many bonds can carbon form?
4 bonds.
- 86
Give an example of an isotope.
Carbon-12 (6 protons, 6 neutrons) vs. Carbon-13 (6 protons, 7 neutrons).
- 87
Define 'isomer'.
Compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties.
- 88
Give an example of an isomer.
Three different forms of C8H18, 18 variants of C8H18, and 366,319 structural isomers of C20H42.
- 89
What are structural isomers?
Isomers that differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms.
- 90
What was collected in the sample for chemical analysis?
A variety of organic molecules that are common in organisms.
- 91
What are the three types of carbon chain skeletons?
Straight, Branched, and Double ring.
- 92
What distinguishes enantiomers?
Enantiomers are mirror images that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetric carbon that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms.
- 93
What is a key characteristic of enantiomers regarding drug efficacy?
One enantiomer of a drug may be equally effective, while the other is less effective or has undesirable side effects.
- 94
What type of bonds does carbon form with other elements?
Covalent bonds.
- 95
Define 'isotope'.
A form of a chemical element that has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in its atomic nucleus.
- 96
What was Stanley Miller's experiment?
An experiment to simulate conditions thought to have existed on the early Earth.
- 97
Amino group - properties and example
-NH2; Acts as a base; Glycine
- 98
Carboxyl group - properties and example
-COOH; Acts as an acid; Acetic acid
- 99
Carbonyl group - properties and example
C=O; Determines the two groups of sugars (ketone, aldehyde); Acetone, Propanal
- 100
Sulfhydryl group - properties and example
-SH; Can form cross-links that stabilize protein structure; Cysteine
- 101
Estradiol vs. Testosterone - structural difference
Testosterone has a methyl group (CH3) attached where estradiol has a hydroxyl group (HO).
- 102
Methyl group - properties and example
-CH3; Affects the expression of genes; affects gene expression; 5-Methylcytosine
- 103
Define functional group.
Chemical groups that are directly involved in chemical reactions in which each has certain properties such as shape and charge.
- 104
Hydroxyl group - properties and example
-OH; Polar; Ethanol
- 105
Phosphate group - properties and example
-OPO3^2-;Contributes negative charge & key component of ATP; important in energy transfer; Glycerol phosphate
- 106
What are the monomers of all carbohydrates called?
Monosaccharides (sugars).
- 107
Name the two functional groups found in all sugars.
Carbonyl group (C=O) and hydroxyl group (-OH).
- 108
Why can humans not digest cellulose?
Humans lack the enzymes to hydrolyze the beta linkages in cellulose.
- 109
What is the shared characteristic of all lipids?
They are hydrophobic (mix poorly with water).
- 110
What are the building blocks of fats?
Glycerol and fatty acids.
- 111
How many water molecules are removed to form a fat from 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol?
3 water molecules, via dehydration reaction.
- 112
What makes a fatty acid unsaturated?
The presence of one or more double bonds between carbons in the hydrocarbon chain.
- 113
Name two saturated fats.
Lard, butter.
- 114
Name two unsaturated fats.
Olive oil, cod liver oil.
- 115
Why are many unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?
The kinks caused by cis double bonds prevent close packing of molecules.
- 116
What is a trans fat?
Unsaturated fats with trans double bonds, often made by hydrogenating vegetable oils.
- 117
List four important functions of fats.
Energy storage, cushioning vital organs, insulation, and regulation of hormones.
- 118
Indicate the hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions of a phospholipid.
The head (phosphate group) is hydrophilic; the tails (fatty acid chains) are hydrophobic.
- 119
What is the role of cholesterol?
A type of steroid that is a crucial molecule in animals for synthesizing other steroids, including sex hormones.
- 120
Give examples of other steroids.
Vertebrate sex hormones.
- 121
Describe the basic structure of a phospholipid.
A glycerol molecule attached to a phosphate group and two fatty acid chains.
- 122
What is an ester linkage?
A covalent bond formed between a glycerol and a fatty acid during fat synthesis.
- 123
What is a steroid?
A lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.
- 124
Name the two categories of polysaccharides and give examples of each.
Storage polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen) and Structural polysaccharides (e.g., cellulose, chitin).
- 125
Define macromolecule.
Chain-like molecules called polymers with a huge size.
- 126
What is a dehydration reaction?
A condensation reaction where a water molecule is lost.
- 127
What occurs during a condensation reaction?
Two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a small molecule.
- 128
What type of reaction connects monomers to form polymers?
Condensation reaction (also called dehydration reaction).
- 129
What is a monomer?
Repeating units that serve as the building blocks of a polymer.
- 130
What is a polymer?
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds.
- 131
What is a glycosidic linkage?
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction.
- 132
Describe the linkage in cellulose.
1-4 linkage of beta glucose monomers.
- 133
What are the large molecules of all living things called?
Macromolecules
- 134
What type of reaction is used to break down polymers into monomers?
Hydrolysis reaction.
- 135
What does hydro and lysis mean?
Water and break
- 136
What is the general formula for a monosaccharide multiple of (CH2O)?
CnH2nOn
- 137
What is the difference between an aldehyde sugar and a ketone sugar?
They differ in the placement of their carbonyl group.
- 138
What term describes compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas?
Isomers
- 139
What is the abbreviated ring structure of glucose?
A six-membered ring with carbons at each unlabeled corner, and a CH2OH group attached to one carbon.
- 140
What is a disaccharide?
A polymer formed from two monosaccharides joined together.
- 141
What two monosaccharides form maltose?
Two glucose molecules.
- 142
What two monosaccharides form sucrose?
Glucose and fructose.
- 143
What two monosaccharides form lactose?
Glucose and galactose.
- 144
Describe the linkage in starch.
1-4 linkage of alpha glucose monomers.
- 145
What is denaturation?
A protein unravels and loses its native shape as its environment is altered, destroying weak chemical bonds and interactions.
- 146
How does sickle-cell disease relate to protein structure?
A substitution in the sixth amino acid of hemoglobin causes it to form a sickle shape, leading to clogged blood vessels.
- 147
What is a hydrophobic interaction in protein folding?
Amino acids with hydrophobic side chains cluster in the core of the protein, away from water.
- 148
What is a disulfide bridge?
Covalent bonds formed between two cysteine monomers that stabilize protein structure.
- 149
What interaction stabilizes the alpha helix and beta pleated sheet?
Hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone.
- 150
What are the three categories of R groups based on their properties?
Nonpolar (hydrophobic), polar (hydrophilic), and electrically charged (acidic or basic, hydrophilic).
- 151
What is the shape of a DNA molecule called?
Double helix.
- 152
What is the primary level of protein structure?
The linear chain of amino acids.
- 153
What type of bond joins amino acids in a polypeptide chain?
Peptide bond.
- 154
What is a polypeptide?
A polymer of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
- 155
What is a dipeptide?
An organic molecule composed of exactly two amino acids joined together by a single peptide bond.
- 156
How many different R groups are there for amino acids?
There are 20 different R groups.
- 157
What is the function of storage proteins?
Storage of amino acids.
- 158
What is the function of hormonal proteins?
Coordination of an organism's activities.
- 159
What is the tertiary level of protein structure?
The three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide stabilized by interactions between side chains.
- 160
What is the function of enzymatic proteins?
Selective acceleration of chemical reactions.
- 161
Why are the two strands of a DNA double helix called antiparallel?
Because the sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite 5' -> 3' directions from each other.
- 162
What two molecules make up the 'uprights' of the DNA double helix?
Deoxyribose sugar and phosphate molecules.
- 163
What is the R group of an amino acid?
The R group, also called the side chain, differs among amino acids and determines their unique characteristics.
- 164
What molecules make up the 'rungs' of the DNA double helix?
Nitrogenous bases: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), and Guanine (G).
- 165
What is the secondary level of protein structure?
Regions stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of the polypeptide backbone, forming alpha helices and beta pleated sheets.
- 166
What are the components of an amino acid?
An amino acid has a central carbon, an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group.
- 167
What is the monomer of a protein?
Amino acid.
- 168
What is the directionality of a nucleic acid strand?
It runs from the 5' end to the 3' end.
- 169
What are the four nitrogenous bases found in DNA?
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
- 170
What are the four nitrogenous bases found in RNA?
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil.
- 171
How do ribose and deoxyribose sugars differ?
Deoxyribose lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring.
- 172
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
A phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
- 173
What is the quaternary level of protein structure?
The association of two or more polypeptides.
- 174
What is an example of a protein with secondary structure?
Alpha helix (a delicate coil) and beta pleated sheet (segments lying side by side).
- 175
What interactions stabilize the tertiary structure of a protein?
Interactions between side chains, including hydrophobic interactions, van der Waals interactions, disulfide bridges, and ionic bonds.
- 176
Where does the synthesis of mRNA occur?
In the nucleus.
- 177
What are the three components of a nucleic acid?
A sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.
- 178
What are the products of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction?
The molecules resulting from the substrate transformation.
- 179
What is the substrate of an enzyme?
The molecule upon which the enzyme acts.
- 180
What is the active site of an enzyme?
The region where the substrate binds and the reaction occurs.
- 181
What is the function of structural proteins?
Support.
- 182
What is the function of transport proteins?
Transport of substances.
- 183
Where does the synthesis of protein occur?
On the ribosome.
- 184
What is the central dogma of molecular biology regarding the flow of genetic information?
DNA -> RNA -> Protein.
- 185
What is the function of chaperonins?
They assist in the proper folding of other proteins.
- 186
What are three ways a protein can become denatured?
Changes in pH, high temperature, or chemicals.
Related decks
Make your own deck.
Snap a photo of your notes and StudyLess generates flashcards in seconds, then schedules every review backward from your exam date.