UNIT 2 - Cognition

The awareness of one's own cognitive processes, including understanding how one learns, remembers, and solves problems.

A persistent strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation. This process leads to stronger and more efficient neural connections, which is the biological basis for memory formation and learning.

Involves remembering to perform future actions (e.g., recalling to attend a meeting next week).

The ability to handle multiple streams of information simultaneously. This process is involved in both Implicit memory and Explicit Memory.

Extremely vivid and clear memories often formed around events that are stressful, traumatic, or emotional (e.g., the events of 9.11). Emotions significantly influence their creation and storage, as the body releases hormones that promote memory formation during such events.

Memories with personal relevance that are generally more memorable. Some individuals possess a highly superior autobiographical memory due to unique biological processes.

Proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968, this model explains how information is processed, stored, and retrieved by focusing on three key systems that information must pass through to be remembered: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory, and Long-term Memory. (Source: Simply Psychology)

The initial, very brief recording of sensory information. It involves automatic processing, meaning information is gathered with little or no conscious effort. Information is a stimulus.

Temporarily holds a limited amount of information (approx. 7 words or numbers) for a short duration (20-30 secs) unless actively rehearsed.

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories, often occurring during sleep. The Hippocampus plays a crucial role in this process. Retrieval is the process of accessing these long-term memories.

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Information moves from short-term memory to long-term memory through consolidation.

An UPDATED version of the Multi-Store Memory Model (see [Multi-Store Memory Model]), which explains how our primary memory system processes and temporarily holds information for cognitive tasks.

A memory model suggesting that the depth of processing information influences how well it is remembered. Deeper levels of processing lead to better memory retention.

The processing of information into the memory system.

Encoding information based on visual elements observed (e.g., font, color, graphs).

Encoding information using sound elements (e.g., rhymes, pitch).

Encoding information using the feeling of touch (e.g., concrete objects, smoothness).

Processing information in a specific sequence, such as lists, groups, or by the relationship between items.

Pairing new information with prior knowledge to enhance memory.

Focusing on the meaning or context of the information for deeper processing.

A device for organizing information in a way that's easier to recall.

Grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units.

Help the brain create connections between related concepts, making information easier to store and retrieve.

The phenomenon where distributed practice (studying over time) gives the brain more time to encode information, leading to improved memory consolidation.

Recalling information through a test improves long-term memory and retention more than simply restudying it. Also known as retrieval practice or test-enhanced learning.

The tendency for people to remember the first and last items in a series better than items in the middle.

A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by impaired memory and other cognitive functions, affecting both the storage and retrieval of memories.

When a person can remember information but cannot recall where or how they learned it.

The inability of adults to remember personal experiences from the early years of life (due to the brain being underdeveloped when those memories would have formed).

A stimulus or hint that helps bring information from long-term memory into conscious awareness.

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.

Improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding is also present at retrieval (e.g., studying in the same room as the exam).

Improved recall when one is in the same physical or psychological state during retrieval as during encoding (e.g., sober vs. intoxicated).

The loss of information from memory or the inability to access it.

Developed by Herman Ebbinghaus, this curve illustrates the decline of memory retention over time passed. It shows that much of what we learn is forgotten relatively quickly, with the rate of forgetting slowing down over time.

Proposed by Sigmund Freud, this perspective suggests that memories can be forgotten to defend the ego from distress (stress perceived as detrimental).

Strategies used by the ego to protect itself from the constant conflicting demands of the id and superego, typically involving unconsciously distorting reality to reduce anxiety and stress.

A defense mechanism where a person refuses to accept reality or facts that are too uncomfortable to face. It involves rejecting external events or internal feelings, thoughts, and memories to protect the ego from pain or anxiety.

Knowing something but being unable to recall the exact name or word.

The psychological process where our brains actively create or reconstruct a memory rather than simply retrieving it. It uses existing knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs to fill gaps and modify details, leading to inaccuracies or errors (memories can be altered or reshaped).

The process where a memory is retrieved and then updated with new information before being stored again as a long-term memory. Prior to reconsolidation, the memory is unstable and susceptible to being changed or lost.

The ability to learn from experience, adapt to new situations, solve problems, and apply knowledge in different contexts.

A measure of intelligence, originally developed by Alfred Binet.

The observed phenomenon that IQ test scores have improved over time across generations. This is attributed to factors such as better education, increased economic stability, improved health care, enhanced nutrition, and greater access to learning resources.

A concept or characteristic that cannot be directly observed but can be measured by observing other indicators associated with it (e.g., intelligence).

The extent to which a test produces consistent results.

The extent to which a test measures what it intends to measure.

The extent to which a test correlates with outside variables or measures (e.g., SAT scores correlating with GPA).

Administering a test in a consistent way, ensuring procedures and the testing environment are the same for all test-takers.