AP Psychology Unit 4
by @mingun09
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Apr 26, 2026
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This deck includes 141 flashcards covering comparison, effect, attribution, and related concepts. Use it to review key Psychology ideas, focus on weak cards, and prepare for your exam with StudyLess.
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2 totalFlashcards
141 total- 01
What is attribution theory?
Attribution theory is used to interpret and explain the causes of events and behaviors.
- 02
What is actor-observer bias?
Actor-observer bias is when we use situational attribution to explain our own actions but dispositional attributions for someone else.
- 03
What is the Pygmalion effect?
Pygmalion Effect: Higher expectations can lead to improved performance, acting as a self-fulfilling prophecy.
- 04
What is the Rosenthal Experiment?
More teacher attention -> positively impacted student outcomes.
- 05
What is an optimistic explanatory style?
Optimistic explanatory style views bad events as temporary problems and focuses on external factors. Failures are seen as situational attributions. Similar to self-serving bias.
- 06
What is internal locus of control?
Internal locus of control is when their actions directly affect the outcome. This leads to more initiative in life, higher self-efficacy, and reduced feelings of helplessness.
- 07
What is self-serving bias?
Self-serving bias is when we focus on positive elements when we succeed and attribute it to our internal factors. If we fail, we do the opposite. Protects self-esteem but prevents from learning.
- 08
What is fundamental attribution error?
Fundamental attribution error is when we overemphasize internal factors for others and the opposite for ourselves.
- 09
What is upward comparison?
Upward Comparison: Compare to people they believe is better off.
- 10
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Person's expectations influence their behavior -> expectations come true -> actions fulfill your initial thought.
- 11
What is relative deprivation?
Relative Deprivation: Feeling of missing out on resource opportunities compared to others
- 12
What is the mere exposure effect?
Mere exposure effect is when repeatedly exposed to a stimulus, people start to like it; people tend to like familiarity. This is the reason why advertisers repeatedly run the same ad over and over again: to be more familiar with the product.
- 13
What are explanatory styles?
Explanatory styles are the way an individual explains or rationalizes different events or situations in life.
- 14
What are the three common biases?
The three common biases are self-serving bias, actor-observer bias, and fundamental attribution error.
- 15
What is social comparison?
Social Comparison: Evaluate ourselves by comparing to others.
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What are dispositional attributions?
Dispositional attributions are internal factors (my bad).
- 17
What are situational attributions?
Situational attributions are external factors (not my fault).
- 18
What is external locus of control?
External locus of control is when outside factors determine the outcome. This can lead to learned helplessness.
- 19
What is person perception?
Person perception is how we perceive other people.
- 20
What is a pessimistic explanatory style?
Pessimistic explanatory style views bad events as more permanent. Failures are seen as dispositional attributes.
- 21
What is downward comparison?
Downward Comparison: Compare themselves to someone that they believe is worse off.
- 22
What is conformity?
Tendency to align behaviors with the norms or standards of a group.
- 23
What is an attitude?
A relatively stable, learned evaluation encompassing our beliefs.
- 24
How does unanimity of the group affect conformity?
If a group displays similar responses, it increases the chance of conforming.
- 25
What is cognitive dissonance?
Mental discomfort when having conflicting beliefs.
- 26
What is explicit prejudice?
People are aware of it.
- 27
What is in-group bias?
The tendency to favor people in our own-group.
- 28
What is the Just-World Phenomenon?
It is the tendency to think that the world is a just place and things are the way they are for a reason. It can lead to victim-blaming (they deserved it).
- 29
What are stereotypes?
Generalized beliefs of a group of people. They can be positive or negative.
- 30
What is ethnocentrism?
Believing your culture is better than others.
- 31
What is an in-group?
The group you belong to.
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What is an out-group?
A group outside of your own group.
- 33
What is an explicit attitude?
Beliefs that the individual is aware of.
- 34
What is out-group homogeneity bias?
It is the tendency to perceive members of an out-group as more similar to each other than they actually are.
- 35
What are social norms?
Unwritten rules in a society.
- 36
What is discrimination?
Actions based on prejudice that is illegal.
- 37
How does authority affect conformity?
Conform more when there are individuals with power.
- 38
What is cultural relativism?
The idea that no culture is superior to others.
- 39
What is an implicit attitude?
Beliefs that the individual is not aware of.
- 40
How does group size affect conformity?
Larger groups often create stronger pressure to conform, especially when the group is greater than 3 but up to 7.
- 41
What is belief perseverance?
Tendency to maintain a belief despite evidence that clearly contradicts it.
- 42
What is prejudice?
A stereotype that is negative towards a group and its members.
- 43
What is implicit prejudice?
Having negative feelings without being aware of it.
- 44
How does expertise affect conformity?
Lack of expertise causes one to rely on others.
- 45
How does group cohesion affect conformity?
Feeling a sense of belonging to a group increases the tendency to conform.
- 46
What is the Door-in-the-Face Technique?
Start with large (unreasonable) request -> Move to smaller request.
- 47
What is the Peripheral Route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
Emotions to persuade someone.
- 48
How does a stronger BATNA affect negotiation?
Stronger BATNA leads to a stronger position.
- 49
What is the Halo Effect?
A cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences how we think about them (Steve Jobs).
- 50
What is BATNA?
Best alternative to negotiated agreement (next best option).
- 51
What are positions?
Stated demand.
- 52
What is the Central Route of the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
Logic to persuade.
- 53
What is the Foot-in-the-Door Technique?
Small request first -> Move on to larger request.
- 54
What are some obedience experiments?
1. The Milgrim Experiment 2. The Stanford Experiment
- 55
What is Normative Influence?
A person's desire to be liked & accepted by a group. For example, you act like a bully.
- 56
What is obedience?
Obedience is how individuals respond to authority.
- 57
What factors influence obedience?
1. Proximity: How close the authority figure and the victim are 2. Legitimacy: The perceived legitimacy of the authority 3. Group Influence: Presence of others who obey or disobey
- 58
What is a tip for negotiation?
Focus on interests, not positions.
- 59
What is Social Influence Theory?
Social Influence Theory is about how and why people are persuaded by others.
- 60
What is Informational Influence?
People conform because they believe others have more accurate info.
- 61
Why do people obey?
1. Fear of consequence: Avoiding punishments 2. Perceived Authority: Status, uniform, or setting 3. Diffusion of responsibility: ex. Nazis ordered 4. Social Norms
- 62
What is the Elaboration Likelihood Model?
This model explains how people are persuaded (central route vs. peripheral route).
- 63
What are interests?
Underlying needs.
- 64
What is Social Facilitation?
Group of people -> perform better (marathon)
- 65
What is the Bystander Effect?
The Bystander Effect is when individuals are less likely to offer help when other people are present.
- 66
What is Group Polarization?
Group Polarization is the tendency to become more extreme in a group due to constant support.
- 67
What is Diffusion of responsibility?
Diffusion of responsibility is when an individual feels less responsible for taking actions.
- 68
What is Deindividuation?
Deindividuation is when an individual in a group loses their sense of self-awareness.
- 69
What is the False Consensus Effect?
The False Consensus Effect is overestimating how much others share their own beliefs.
- 70
What is Groupthink?
Groupthink is when a group prioritizes consensus over critical evaluation.
- 71
What is Social Loafing?
Social Loafing is when individuals are in groups, they end up trying less since they can rely on others.
- 72
What is repression?
Unconsciously suppress unpleasant memories (ex. child not have memory of abuse).
- 73
What is Self-Actualization?
Individual is motivated to strive for their full potential.
- 74
What is rationalization?
Justifies an uncomfortable thought (ex. rejected by dream school -> claim you didn't want to go).
- 75
What is denial?
Denying reality (ex. parents don't accept their child had passed).
- 76
What is regression?
Become baby when stressed (ex. Eat more in finals week).
- 77
What is the Id?
Instinct (unconscious). It seeks immediate gratification. Ignores morality & consequences.
- 78
What is projection?
Seeing own flaws on someone else (ex. Ur attracted to someone else -> accuse your partner for infidelity).
- 79
What does Industrial Organizational Psychology specialize in?
It specializes in understanding how human behavior in work settings influences individuals.
- 80
What are subordinate goals?
Subordinate goals are the specific, actionable steps for superordinate goals.
- 81
What is Unconditional Positive Regard?
Accepting and valuing someone without any conditions or requirements.
- 82
What is an altruistic act?
An altruistic act is when an individual does a selfless act for the well-being of others.
- 83
What is Self-Actualizing Tendency?
An innate drive for self-actualization
- 84
What is the psychodynamic perspective according to Freud?
Person's personality & behavior is shaped by conscious & unconscious mind.
- 85
What is the Humanistic Perspective?
Emphasizes the inherent goodness of people & their desire to grow to reach their full potential.
- 86
What are superordinate goals?
Superordinate goals are ultimate goals.
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What is Conditional Positive Regard?
Acceptance or approval is given only if the individuals meet certain conditions.
- 88
What is displacement?
Redirecting emotions to someone else (ex. upset on boss -> frustration on family).
- 89
What methods do Humanistic Psychologists use?
Qualitative methods (interviews) & Q-sort technique. Using qualitative methods can compare real self with ideal self.
- 90
What are social traps?
Social traps are when people act in their own short-term interests disregarding the long-term negative consequences (carbon emissions, overfishing, and cheating).
- 91
What is Incongruence?
Large gap between ideal self & actual self.
- 92
What is sublimation?
Transform unacceptable urges into socially acceptable/productive activities.
- 93
What is Self-Transcendence?
Individual goes beyond their own self-interest (religious).
- 94
What is reaction formation?
Acting the opposite (ex. acting cool & dismissive to crush).
- 95
What is the Superego?
Morality (preconscious). It is based on societal expectations.
- 96
What is the Ego?
Reality (conscious). It regulates impulses & mediates between the Id & Superego.
- 97
What is Congruence?
Alignment with ideal self & actual self.
- 98
What is Self-Concept?
How a person sees and describes themselves.
- 99
What is Extraversion?
Person's sociability.
- 100
What does OCEAN stand for in The Big Five Theory of Personality?
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
- 101
What is Conscientiousness?
Organization, dependability, discipline.
- 102
What is Likert Scale?
Qualitative measure -> Quantitative measure.
- 103
What is Factor Analysis?
Identify cluster of related questions (analyzing responses to similar questions).
- 104
What is Trait Theory?
Personality is made up of stable, measurable traits
- 105
What is Openness?
Imagination, creativity, and curiosity.
- 106
What is Agreeableness?
Trustworthiness, altruism, kindness, and affection.
- 107
What is Social-Cognitive Theory?
People learn by observing others and behavior is shaped by the interaction between the three factors (Cognition, behaviors, environment).
- 108
What is Personality Inventory?
List of questions that measure personality (MBTI).
- 109
What is Self-Efficacy?
An individual's belief in their ability.
- 110
What is Neuroticism?
Tendency to remain calm in stressful situations.
- 111
What is Self-Esteem?
How people feel about their abilities, accomplishments, and personality.
- 112
What is Sensation-Seeking Theory?
Sensation-Seeking Theory proposes that there are 4 types of sensation seeking, and different people have different interests.
- 113
What is motivation?
Motivation is what pushes us to take action.
- 114
What does Self-Determination Theory focus on?
Self-Determination Theory focuses on needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, which are forms of intrinsic motivation.
- 115
What is Disinhibition?
Disinhibition is a desire for unrestrained social and sexual experiences, often involving a loss of self-control.
- 116
What is an Approach-Avoidance Conflict?
An Approach-Avoidance Conflict occurs when a single goal has both desirable (W) and undesirable (L) aspects.
- 117
What is the main idea of Drive Reduction Theory?
Drive Reduction Theory suggests that we want to maintain homeostasis, which drives behavior.
- 118
What is Motivational Conflict Theory (Kurt Lewin)?
Motivational Conflict Theory, developed by Kurt Lewin, suggests people are motivated to take action to resolve conflicts.
- 119
What are the four types of conflicts in Motivational Conflict Theory?
The four types of conflicts are: 1. Approach-Approach Conflict (W-W) 2. Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict (L-L) 3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict (Single goal has both W and L) 4. Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict (Two options, each possessing both positive & negative aspects)
- 120
What is a Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict?
A Double Approach-Avoidance Conflict involves choosing between two options, where each option has both positive and negative aspects.
- 121
What is an Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict?
An Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict is when a choice is between two undesirable options (L-L).
- 122
What is Incentive Theory?
Incentive Theory relates to extrinsic motivation.
- 123
What is Boredom Susceptibility?
Boredom Susceptibility is the inability to tolerate routine, repetition, or monotonous situations.
- 124
What is Experience Seeking?
Experience Seeking involves seeking novel experiences.
- 125
What is the Yerkes-Dodson Law?
The Yerkes-Dodson Law states that performance increases with arousal, but only up to a certain point.
- 126
What are Primary Needs (Instincts)?
Primary needs are biological needs such as water, food, or sleep.
- 127
What are Secondary Needs?
Secondary needs are psychological needs, including approval, love, and a sense of belonging.
- 128
What is Thrill or Adventure Seeking?
Thrill or Adventure Seeking involves seeking intense physical sensations.
- 129
What is Arousal Theory?
Arousal Theory states that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal.
- 130
What is an Approach-Approach Conflict?
An Approach-Approach Conflict is when a choice is between two desirable options (W-W).
- 131
What is the universality of emotion?
Certain emotions are recognized regardless of culture.
- 132
What is the Broaden-and-Build Theory of emotion?
This theory states that positive emotions broaden our thought-action repertoires and build personal resources.
- 133
How do negative emotions affect focus according to the Broaden-and-Build Theory?
Negative emotions narrow focus to focus and solve a problem.
- 134
Describe the James-Lange Theory of emotion.
Stimulus leads to a physiological response, which then leads to emotion.
- 135
What is emotion?
Emotion is the interpretation of internal and external factors.
- 136
Describe the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotion.
Physiological and cognitive experiences occur simultaneously after a stimulus.
- 137
Describe the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of emotion.
Stimulus leads to physiological arousal, which is then followed by cognitive labels, resulting in emotion.
- 138
List some universally recognized emotions.
Anger, Disgust, Sadness, Happiness, Surprise, Fear, Contempt
- 139
What are Elicitors of Emotion?
Elicitors of emotion are stimuli that trigger an emotional response.
- 140
What are Display Rules?
Display rules are rules on whether you can express emotions.
- 141
What is the Facial-Feedback Hypothesis?
Facial expressions can influence the emotional experience.
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