LECTURE NOTE PEPPER

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1. 01

   Pepper Species

   nigrum

2. 02

   Scientific name of Pepper

   Piper nigrum

3. 03

   Common names for Pepper

   Pepper, lada hitam, lada putih

4. 04

   Pepper Origin

   Hillside of Ghat Barat and Coast Malabar in western India

5. 05

   Pepper's status in the international market

   One of the oldest known spices

6. 06

   Major pepper producing and exporting countries (besides India)

   Malaysia, Brazil, Indonesia, China, Thailand

7. 07

   Sarawak's contribution to national pepper production

   98% of national production

8. 08

   Economic significance of pepper in Sarawak

   Important cash crop, contributing to incomes and livelihood of 66,700 rural smallholders

9. 09

   Pepper plant type

   Perennial, evergreen, woody vine

10. 10

    How pepper vines climb

    Using aerial roots arising from stem nodes

11. 11

    Cultivated pepper plant appearance

    Grown on support, appearing as a bushy column

12. 12

    Economic life of a pepper plant

    About 25-30 years

13. 13

    Maximum lifespan of a pepper plant in natural conditions

    Up to 100 years

14. 14

    Pepper plant root characteristics

    Woody climbing vines, numerous rootlets from swollen stem nodes, stem roots for attachment

15. 15

    Maximum height of pepper vines without pruning

    8-10 m

16. 16

    Types of pepper plant branches

    Orthotropic (vegetative, climbing) and Plagiotropic (generative)

17. 17

    Orthotropic branches

    Vegetative, climbing, with roots on nodes; form plant frameworks

18. 18

    Plagiotropic branches

    Generative, bear axillary inflorescences; have no roots on nodes

19. 19

    Pepper plant branch types: Climbing stem

    Main stem, clings and climbs support; nodes have 1 leaf and a bud

20. 20

    Pepper plant branch types: Stolon

    Grows from base of climbing stem; turns into climbing stem on contact with support

21. 21

    Pepper plant branch types: Hanging shoots

    Arise from main shoots; do not contact support

22. 22

    Pepper plant branch types: Lateral shoots

    Branches arising from main terminal stems

23. 23

    Pepper plant leaf arrangement

    Alternate

24. 24

    Pepper plant leaf shape and texture

    Simple, glabrous, leathery

25. 25

    Pepper plant petiole length

    2-5 cm

26. 26

    Pepper plant leaf blade dimensions

    Ovate, 8-20 cm in length

27. 27

    Pepper plant leaf appearance

    Glossy, ovate, accurately tipped; shiny dark green above, pale green beneath, with 5-7 pronounced veins

28. 28

    Pepper plant inflorescence type and size

    Spike, 3-25 cm long, with 50-150 flowers

29. 29

    Pepper flower appearance

    Elongated, slender spike with white flowers

30. 30

    Pepper flower sex

    Unisexual or hermaphrodite (most cultivars are hermaphrodite)

31. 31

    Where pepper flowers are borne

    In the axils of ovate fleshy branches

32. 32

    Pepper fruit type

    Sessile globose drupe

33. 33

    Pepper fruit dimensions

    4-6 mm in diameter

34. 34

    Pepper fruit structure

    Fleshy, thin mesocarp; red exocarp when ripe

35. 35

    Pepper seed/berry diameter

    3-4 mm

36. 36

    Ideal soil for pepper cultivation

    Well-drained alluvium rich in organic matter

37. 37

    Soils unsuitable for pepper

    Heavy clay, peat, muck, and waterlogged soils

38. 38

    Pepper soil pH requirement

    5.0 to 6.5

39. 39

    Pepper cultivation on slopes

    May be grown on slopes between 15°-25°; requires terracing to prevent erosion

40. 40

    Minimum soil depth for pepper

    100 cm (friable soil)

41. 41

    Suitable soil series for pepper

    Rengam Series, Senai Series, and Jerangau Series

42. 42

    Ideal climate for pepper

    Warm and wet tropical climate

43. 43

    Pepper relative humidity requirement

    70% - 80%

44. 44

    Average annual rainfall for pepper

    2500 mm/year

45. 45

    Average daily temperature for pepper

    22°C - 35°C

46. 46

    Pepper's drought tolerance

    Cannot withstand drought for more than 2 months due to shallow root system

47. 47

    Irrigation importance for pepper

    Critical in areas with limited water supply

48. 48

    Well-known pepper varieties from Malaysia

    Kuching (Traditional Cultivar), Semongok Emas, Semongok Aman, Semongok Perak

49. 49

    Well-known pepper varieties from Indonesia

    Belantung, Djambi, Bangka

50. 50

    Well-known pepper variety from India

    Karimunda

51. 51

    Currently recommended pepper cultivars

    Kuching (Traditional), Semongok Emas (released 1991, Backcross hybrid), Semongok Aman (released 2006)

52. 52

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Green berry yield (kg/vine/year)

    Kuching: 6-8, Semongok Emas: 6-8, Semongok Aman: 6-8

53. 53

    Recommended pepper cultivars - % Dry (conversion ratio) to black pepper

    Kuching: 33%, Semongok Emas: 31%, Semongok Aman: 33%

54. 54

    Recommended pepper cultivars - % Dry (conversion ratio) to white pepper

    Kuching: 24%, Semongok Emas: 22%, Semongok Aman: 22%

55. 55

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Weight of 100 mature green berries (g)

    Kuching: 13.8, Semongok Emas: 15.6, Semongok Aman: 15.7

56. 56

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Length of fruit spike (cm)

    Kuching: 9.7, Semongok Emas: 9.9, Semongok Aman: 10.1

57. 57

    Recommended pepper cultivars - % Piperine

    Kuching: 3.5, Semongok Emas: 3.4, Semongok Aman: 5.4

58. 58

    Recommended pepper cultivars - % Oleoresin

    Kuching: 11.0, Semongok Emas: 11.0, Semongok Aman: 15.5

59. 59

    Recommended pepper cultivars - % Volatile oil

    Kuching: 2.8, Semongok Emas: 3.0, Semongok Aman: 3.8

60. 60

    Recommended pepper cultivars - % Non-volatile oil

    Kuching: 7.9, Semongok Emas: 8.0, Semongok Aman: 11.5

61. 61

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Harvesting rounds per season

    Kuching: 4-6; Semongok Emas & Aman: 2-3 (more uniform ripening)

62. 62

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Susceptibility to Phytophthora: Foot Rot Disease

    Kuching: Highly Susceptible; Semongok Emas: Susceptible; Semongok Aman: Less Susceptible

63. 63

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Susceptibility to black berry disease

    Kuching: Highly Susceptible; Semongok Emas & Aman: Tolerant

64. 64

    Recommended pepper cultivars - Susceptibility to pepper weevil

    Kuching: Susceptible; Semongok Emas & Aman: Less Susceptible

65. 65

    Types of planting materials for pepper propagation

    Seed and Vegetative cuttings

66. 66

    Most common pepper propagation method

    Vegetative cuttings

67. 67

    Pepper propagation by seed - recommendation

    Not recommended

68. 68

    Reasons why seed propagation is not recommended for pepper

    Takes longer to mature, does not ensure good yield quality

69. 69

    Best propagation method for pepper

    Vegetative cutting

70. 70

    Source of cuttings for pepper propagation

    1-2 year old actively growing vines

71. 71

    Timing for taking pepper cuttings

    6-8 weeks before field planting

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    Ideal cutting for pepper propagation

    Immature actively growing terminal stem

73. 73

    Why avoid cuttings from lateral branches for pepper

    Results in shrub-like plant, grows not upward

74. 74

    Source of cuttings for pepper propagation (diagram)

    1-2 year old pepper vine from a healthy and vigorous mother plant

75. 75

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Stem selection

    Select stem with 5-7 nodes; prepare before removing from plant

76. 76

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Preparation

    Remove lower 4 nodes, leave top 3 nodes

77. 77

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Cutting time

    Cut off after 7-10 days when a new bud has grown

78. 78

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Shoot removal

    Remove all aerial shoots arising from nodes

79. 79

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Rooting

    Rooted in nursery beds or polybags

80. 80

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Planting angle

    Planted with 4 nodes buried at an angle

81. 81

    Pepper vegetative cutting procedure: Nursery requirements

    Adequate shading required

82. 82

    Purpose of shading in pepper nurseries

    Prevent desiccation, maintain damp conditions for rooting

83. 83

    Transplanting time for rooted pepper cuttings

    About 2-3 months after rooting

84. 84

    Hardening of rooted cuttings

    Carried out to reduce transplanting shock

85. 85

    Field Planting: Land Preparation - Initial step

    Clear land of dead stumps and debris to avoid root diseases

86. 86

    Field Planting: Land Preparation - Sloping areas

    Construct terraces with a width of 1.2 to 1.8 meters

87. 87

    Field Planting: Land Preparation - Slope direction

    Slope should be slanting to ensure water flows into terraces, not downhill, preventing erosion

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    Pepper planting distance: 2.44 m x 2.44 m (rectangular)

    1680 plants/hectare

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    Pepper planting distance: 1.83 m x 2.44 m (rectangular)

    2240 plants/hectare

90. 90

    Pepper planting distance: 2.1 m x 2.1 m (triangular)

    2619 plants/hectare

91. 91

    Field Planting: Transplanting - Timing

    Rooted cuttings can be transplanted from nursery to field about 2-3 months after rooting

92. 92

    Field Planting: Transplanting - Seedling hardening

    Should be carried out before transplanting

93. 93

    Field Planting: Transplanting - Planting angle

    Planted at an angle with soil around the lower 4 nodes pressed firmly

94. 94

    Field Planting: Transplanting - Aerial portion

    Tied onto the permanent support post

95. 95

    Field Planting: Transplanting - Shading requirements

    Intensive shading required initially

96. 96

    Field Planting: Transplanting - Shading reduction schedule

    50% shade for 4 weeks, reduced to 25% for 6 weeks, completely removed after 8 weeks

97. 97

    Pepper vine support systems

    Live Tree Support System, Permanent Wooden Support System, Permanent Concrete Support System, Shrub (Non-climbing) Support System

98. 98

    Live Tree Support System - Examples

    Coconut, jackfruit, Giricidia trees

99. 99

    Live Tree Support System - Planting distance

    Not regular, dependent on live tree distance

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     Live Tree Support System - Yield

     Normally low

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     Live Tree Support System - Lifespan

     30 years

102. 102

     Live Tree Support System - Popularity

     Popular in Sri Lanka and Indonesia

103. 103

     Permanent Wooden Support System - Post dimensions

     Hardwood post: 15 cm x 15 cm; 3.7 m high

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     Permanent Wooden Support System - Example hardwoods

     Belian, Balau, Resak, Chengal

105. 105

     Permanent Wooden Support System - Post planting depth

     60 cm into the ground

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     Permanent Wooden Support System - Timing of support installation

     Carried out before cuttings are planted in the field

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     Permanent Wooden Support System - Lifespan

     15 years

108. 108

     Permanent Concrete Support System - Dimensions

     Similar to hardwood post: 15 cm x 15 cm; 3.7 m high

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     Permanent Concrete Support System - Yield comparison

     No difference in yield compared to wooden supports

110. 110

     Permanent Concrete Support System - Vine management

     Tie main stems with fiber; leave lateral branches free for side growth

111. 111

     Permanent Concrete Support System - Lifespan

     15 years

112. 112

     Shrub (Non-climbing) Support System - Pepper growth

     Left to grow without any support post

113. 113

     Shrub (Non-climbing) Support System - Pruning

     Growing buds are pruned regularly

114. 114

     Shrub (Non-climbing) Support System - Usage and yield

     Rarely used as it does not provide high yield

115. 115

     Shrub (Non-climbing) Support System - Maintenance

     High maintenance (fertilizing, weeding, harvesting); very laborious

116. 116

     General Maintenance Activities

     Fertilizer Requirements, Pruning, Weed Control, Mounding, Mulching, Pest Management, Diseases Management

117. 117

     Pepper fertilizer needs

     Requires a lot of nutrients and high-quality fertilizer for yield

118. 118

     Fertilizer application at planting

     120g CIRP and 150g GML per planting hole

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     Fertilizer for immature pepper plants

     NPK 14:13:9:2:5

120. 120

     Fertilizer for mature pepper plants

     NPK 15:7:18:2 or NPK 12:12:17:2+TE at 1.5 kg/plant/year

121. 121

     Organic fertilizer recommendation for pepper

     Recommended to improve yield, soil structure, and increase economic life

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     Organic fertilizer application for first 2 years

     About 2 kg per plant per year

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     Fertilizer application schedule for 1-year-old plants

     Compound 14:13:9:2:5: 350 g/plant/yr (6 times/yr); GML: 150 g/plant/yr (2 times/yr)

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     Fertilizer application schedule for 2-year-old plants

     Compound 15:7:18:2 / 12:12:17:2+TE: 750 g/plant/yr (6 times/yr); GML: 250 g/plant/yr (2 times/yr)

125. 125

     Fertilizer application schedule for 3-year-old plants

     Compound 15:7:18:2 / 12:12:17:2+TE: 1500 g/plant/yr (4 times/yr); GML: 500 g/plant/yr (2 times/yr)

126. 126

     Fertilizer application schedule for plants 4 years and above

     Compound 15:7:18:2 / 12:12:17:2+TE: 4000 g/plant/yr (4 split applications: after harvesting, at flowering, early fruit formation, maturity fruits); GML: 500 g/plant/yr (2 times/yr)

127. 127

     Types of pruning for pepper plants

     Formative Pruning and Routine Pruning

128. 128

     Purpose of Formative Pruning

     Increase yield by encouraging productive lateral branches, bushiness, and terminal stem growth

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     First round of Formative Pruning

     When terminal stem reaches ~60cm with 8-9 nodes

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     Pruning height for terminal stem in Formative Pruning

     30 cm above ground level

131. 131

     Training of main stems in Formative Pruning

     Trained up to support and tied at frequent intervals

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     Formative Pruning - Subsequent pruning

     Prune again within 3-4 nodes of previous cut when stem develops 10 nodes

133. 133

     Formative Pruning - Lateral branches

     Each node should have lateral branches

134. 134

     Formative Pruning - Frequency

     Every 3 months until vines reach the top of the support post

135. 135

     Formative Pruning - Terminal shoots

     Periodically pruned to avoid top-heavy vines

136. 136

     Routine Pruning activities

     Remove nodes without lateral branches, remove side branches near ground, remove leaves from nodes (for air circulation), remove flower spikes until vines are 2-2.5 years old

137. 137

     Weed control for immature pepper plants

     Circle weeding done manually or with herbicides

138. 138

     Weed control for mature pepper plants (after 5 months)

     Chemical spraying between planting rows

139. 139

     Frequency of chemical spraying for weed control

     4-6 rounds per year, depending on weed growth

140. 140

     Purpose of Mounding

     Improves the medium for the rooting system

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     Mounding frequency

     Periodically, especially during weeding

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     Benefits of Mounding

     Promotes plant growth and increases yield potential

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     Materials for Mulching

     Cut weeds and grass

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     Benefits of Mulching

     Reduces moisture loss, reduces soil temperature, promotes plant growth, increases yield potential

145. 145

     Pepper Pest: Pepper Weevil (Lophobaris piperis) - Damage

     Grubs bore tunnels in branches, causing branches to die; serious damage to climbing stems of immature vines; adults feed on leaves and fruits

146. 146

     Pepper Weevil Control

     Remove affected branches; spray insecticides (e.g., Agrocides) directly to the stem

147. 147

     Pepper Pest: Thrips (Liothrips crassipes) - Damage

     Adults and nymphs suck sap from leaves, causing death and distortion

148. 148

     Thrips Control

     Spray insecticides (e.g., Dimethoate, Acephate) directly to the vines

149. 149

     Pepper Pest: Mealy Bugs (Planococcus citri) - Damage

     Attack fruiting spikes, leaves, and stem

150. 150

     Mealy Bugs Control

     Albolineum mixed with water or Malathion

151. 151

     Disease Management: Slow Decline Diseases - Causes

     Biotic factors (Phytium sp., Phytophthora sp., Fusarium sp., nematodes) and Abiotic factors (waterlogged conditions, drought, nutrient deficiencies, infertile soil)

152. 152

     Slow Decline Diseases - Symptoms

     Yellowing or stunted plants, small leaves, easy defoliation, yield decline

153. 153

     Slow Decline Diseases - Controls

     Agronomic practices for abiotic factors; appropriate chemicals (fungicides, nematicides) for biotic factors

154. 154

     Disease Management: Foot Rot (Pyhtophthora palmivora) - Symptoms

     Wilting vines, yellowing and falling leaves, dark diseased area on stem bark below soil, circular black spots on leaves, infected spikes/fruits turn black and rotten

155. 155

     Foot Rot Control

     Plant on well-irrigated soil, avoid planting during high rainfall; spray Copper oxychloride or diflotan on adjacent plants to prevent spread

156. 156

     Disease Management: White Root Diseases (Fomes lignosus) - Symptoms

     Drooping & yellowing leaves, white threads at roots, grayish wooden tissue in root, infected vines die

157. 157

     White Root Diseases Control

     Destroy and burn infected plants; paint remaining roots with Calixin or PCNB; inspect collar region routinely

158. 158

     Disease Management: Thread Blight (Marasmius scandens) - Symptoms

     White threads on leaves & branches, parts turn brown and die, dead leaves hang on fungal threads

159. 159

     Thread Blight Control

     Destroy and burn infected plants; spray main stem with Copper oxychloride or paint with Calixin

160. 160

     Time for seedling vines to produce yield

     5-7 years after planting

161. 161

     Time for vegetative cuttings to flower for the first time

     2-3 years after planting

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     Time for pepper fruit to mature after flowering

     5-9 months

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     Pepper harvesting method

     Mature berries (red or green) picked manually

164. 164

     Processing requirement for harvested berries

     Send to processing center within 24 hours to avoid deterioration

165. 165

     Average pepper yield in the first two years

     About 2200 kg/ha

166. 166

     Pepper peak production year and yield

     At 5 years, with an average of 4400 kg/ha

167. 167

     When pepper yield starts to decline

     After 10-12 years

168. 168

     Black Pepper Processing Steps

     Berries Selection, Kept for 24 Hours, Berries Removal, Drying, Winnowing, Grading & Packaging

169. 169

     Black Pepper Processing: Berries Selection

     Acquired from green mature and older fresh berries

170. 170

     Black Pepper Processing: Conversion ratio (fresh to dry)

     30% (3 kg fresh pepper produces 1 kg dry pepper)

171. 171

     Black Pepper Processing: Kept Berries for 24 Hours

     Berries kept for 24 hours for easy separation from spike

172. 172

     Black Pepper Processing: Berries Removal Method

     Manually by rubbing spike against wire mesh, or using a separator machine

173. 173

     Black Pepper Processing: Drying

     Separated berries dried for 3-10 days in direct sunlight until outer skin turns black

174. 174

     Black Pepper Processing: Winnowing

     Used to remove stalks and other trash after drying

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     Black Pepper Processing: Grading & Packaging

     Dried berries graded and packed according to specification

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     White Pepper Processing Steps

     Soaking, Washing, Drying, Packaging

177. 177

     White Pepper Processing: Soaking Purpose

     Soften the pericarp and assist in its removal

178. 178

     White Pepper Processing: Soaking Duration

     About 10 days in a pond with running water

179. 179

     White Pepper Processing: Washing

     Bags taken out, berries trampled, washed several times to remove stalks and decayed pericarp

180. 180

     White Pepper Processing: Drying

     Dried in sun immediately to avoid discoloration; kept under water if weather is unfavorable to prevent mold; takes 3-10 days; moisture content less than 10%

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     White Pepper Processing: Packaging

     Finished product packed into plastic or air-tight containers for marketing

182. 182

     Market Distribution Channels for Pepper

     Farmers sell to local merchants (who sell to exporters), farmers sell directly to exporters, farmers sell to retailers/wholesale buyers (who sell to exporters)

183. 183

     Pepper Family

     Piperaceae

184. 184

     Pepper Genus

     Piper