This study guide outlines key concepts in developmental psychology, covering physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes across the lifespan. It details major theories, research methods, and specific developmental milestones from prenatal stages through adulthood. Students should be prepared to distinguish between continuous and discontinuous development, various research designs, and the different influences on development, such as nature vs. nurture and genetic vs. environmental factors.
3.1 Developmental Psychology Introduction
Introduces developmental psychology and its core focus areas and perspectives.
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Developmental Psychology
A branch of psychology focusing on how people grow and change throughout their lives.
It examines physical, cognitive, emotional understanding, social relationships, and personality traits from infancy to adulthood.
| Chronological Order | Thematic Issue | |
|---|---|---|
| Focus | How people develop in a sequence as they age | Specific themes and topics that span across a person's life |
| Stages/Scope | Covers distinct stages: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood | Examines development of specific traits or abilities across all life stages |
Themes in Developmental Psychology
Explores key debates: nature vs. nurture and stability vs. change in development.
The Nature and Nurture debate questions whether behaviors and traits are determined by genetics or environment.
| Nature (Heredity) | Nurture (Environment) | |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Influence of genetics on behaviors and traits | Influence of the environment on behaviors and traits |
| Evidence | Minnesota twin study found identical twins reared apart have similar personality, intelligence, and other traits. | Life experiences and external factors shaping development. |
The Stability and Change debate examines whether personality traits are consistent or evolve over time.
| Stability | Change | |
|---|---|---|
| Question | Do early personality traits continue throughout life? | Do early personality traits change over time due to experiences? |
| Evidence | Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study found some personality traits remain stable. | Dunedin study also found other traits often change due to people's life experiences. |
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Longitudinal studies
Research method used to gain insight into changes and patterns that occur over an extended period of time.
Strengths include showing cause and effect. Weaknesses include being costly, time-consuming, and susceptible to participant drop-out.
Continuous vs. Discontinuous Development and Research Methods
Compares continuous and discontinuous development theories and introduces research methods.
Distinction between smooth, gradual development and development in distinct stages.
| Continuous Development | Discontinuous Development | |
|---|---|---|
| Process | Development is gradual and smooth, occurring over time. | Development occurs in distinct stages or steps. |
| Theories | Associated with Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory (influenced by social interactions and culture). | Associated with Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory and Erick Erickson's Stages of development. |
| Example | Learning language skills gradually. | Motor Development milestones like sitting, crawling, or walking. |
Cross-cultural Research on Motor Development
A cross-sectional study found that culture plays a larger factor in infant motor development than previously believed milestones, suggesting environmental influence on the timing of skills like sitting, crawling, or walking.
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Cross-sectional Study
An observational research method that collects data from a population at a single, specific point in time.
Strengths: cheaper, quick. Weaknesses: cannot show change over time, cannot explain relationships between new and old data, and does not account for the Cohort effect.
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Cohort effect
A phenomenon where a group of individuals (cohort) who share common characteristics (e.g., Gen Zs vs. Millennials) experience different developmental outcomes due to their shared age range and historical experiences.
3.2 Physical Development - Prenatal Stages
Details the three main stages of prenatal development from conception to birth.
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Prenatal Development
The process of growth from conception to birth, divided into three main stages.
The three main stages of prenatal development.
| Germinal Stage | Embryonic Stage | Fetal Stage | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Duration | 0-2 weeks | 3-8 weeks | 9 weeks-birth |
| Key Developments | Conception, cell division, implantation in uterine wall. | Major organs and body systems begin to form; sex organs differentiate. | Rapid growth and maturation of organs; refinement of features. |
9 weeks
Fetal Stage Begins
Marks the start of the fetal period.
12 weeks
Sex Organs Differentiate
External sex organs become distinct.
16 weeks
Fingers and Toes Develop
Fingers and toes are fully formed.
20 weeks
Hearing Begins
The fetus starts to respond to sounds, indicating developing hearing.
24 weeks
Lungs Develop
Lungs begin to form and mature, preparing for breathing.
28 weeks
Brain Grows Rapidly
Significant growth and development of the brain.
32 weeks
Bones Fully Develop
Bones are largely ossified and fully formed.
36 weeks
Muscles Fully Develop
Muscles are well-developed, allowing for more complex movements.
40 weeks
Full-Term Development
The fetus is considered full-term and ready for birth.
Prenatal Development - Influences and Risks
Covers substances, illnesses, and genetic factors that can harm prenatal development.
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Teratogens
Substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a developing fetus.
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Alcohol consumption during pregnancy
결과
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), leading to physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems.
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Tobacco use during pregnancy
결과
Restricted oxygen flow to the fetus, resulting in low birth weight, underdevelopment, and premature birth.
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Drugs (illicit or certain prescription drugs)
결과
Various birth defects and developmental issues depending on the substance.
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Environmental toxins (e.g., Air pollution, water contaminants, radiation, pesticides, stress)
결과
Any external elements that can affect prenatal development, leading to potential harm.
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Maternal illness
Any disease or infection a mother experiences during pregnancy that can affect the developing fetus.
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Genetic mutations
Genetic disorders that can occur spontaneously or be inherited from parents.
Examples include: an extra copy of chromosome 21 leading to Down Syndrome, or a female missing or having an incomplete X chromosome leading to Turner Syndrome.
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Hormones
Imbalances or atypical levels of hormones can affect brain growth and development, potentially leading to atypical brain development.
3.2 Physical Development - Infancy Reflexes
Covers involuntary infant reflexes crucial for survival, typically disappearing within months.
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Infant Reflexes
Involuntary movements that help with survival and are neurological responses.
Most infant reflexes typically stop at around 4 to 6 months of age.
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Palmar Grasp
When a finger is placed in a baby's palm, the baby will close their hand around it.
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Plantar Grasp
When a finger is placed underneath a baby's toes, they will curl their toes toward the base of the foot.
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Babinski Reflex
When the sole of a baby's foot is stroked, their big toe will move upward and their other toes will fan out.
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Rooting Reflex
When a baby's cheek is gently stroked near their mouth, they turn in that direction, mouth open, ready to eat, aiding in feeding.
Distinguishing between the Babinski reflex and the Plantar grasp based on age and response.
| Babinski Reflex | Plantar Grasp | |
|---|---|---|
| Age Range | Normal for ages 2 or under. | Normal for adults or children over 2. |
| Response | Big toe moves upward, other toes fan out when sole is stroked. | Toes curl toward the base of the foot when stimulated. |
| Significance | Presence in older children/adults can indicate neurological issues. | Absence in infants or presence of Babinski in older individuals can indicate neurological issues. |
Infancy - Motor Skills and Perception
Explores the development of motor skills and early perceptual abilities in infants.
The development of motor skills in infants happens in a predictable order, though the age at which children reach each milestone can vary due to genetic, environmental, or cultural factors.
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Tummy Time
When a baby spends time on their stomach during playtime.
This practice helps develop neck and shoulder muscles faster, potentially leading to earlier crawling.
Distinguishing between large and small muscle movements in infants.
| Gross Motor Skills | Fine Motor Skills | |
|---|---|---|
| Definition | Larger movements involving large muscle groups. | Smaller, more precise movements involving smaller muscle groups. |
| Examples | Crawling and walking, allowing a child to navigate their environment. | Holding a spoon, critical for tasks like feeding, drawing, or playing. |
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Visual Cliff Apparatus
A research tool used to create the illusion of a drop-off (a glass surface over a patterned floor) to test an infant's early ability to perceive depth perception.
Infants placed on one side, with parents encouraging them from the other, often show hesitation or refusal to crawl over the 'cliff', indicating they perceive depth.
Infancy - Critical Periods and Attachment
Examines critical periods for skill acquisition and imprinting in non-human animals.
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Critical or Sensitive Periods
Specific windows of time when the brain is especially receptive to acquiring certain skills.
If necessary experiences or stimuli are missing during this time, the development of that skill (e.g., Language skills in the first few years of a child's life) may be significantly hindered or impossible to achieve later on.
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Imprint
A rapid learning process in non-human animals where they form an attachment to the first moving object they see after birth, which is generally their mother.
3.2 Physical Development - Adolescence
Adolescence covers sexual maturity, physical, psychological, and emotional changes.
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Puberty
The period when an individual reaches sexual maturity, gaining the ability to reproduce.
Involves significant physical, psychological, and emotional changes, including hormonal changes and further development of sex characteristics.
| Primary Sex Characteristics | Secondary Sex Characteristics | |
|---|---|---|
| Relation to Reproduction | Directly related to the reproductive system and ability to reproduce. | Indirectly related to reproduction. |
| Female Examples | Menarche (first menstruation). | Breast development, widening of the hips, growth of pubic and underarm hair. |
| Male Examples | Spermarche (first ejaculation). | Facial and body hair, Adam's apple, increased muscle mass, deepening of the voice. |
| Hormonal Influence | Driven by hormones like oestrogen (females) and testosterone (males). | Driven by hormones like oestrogen (females) and testosterone (males). |
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Adolescence Growth Spurt
A rapid increase in height and weight that occurs during adolescence.
3.2 Physical Development - Adulthood
Adulthood covers a period of leveling off and decline in physical abilities.
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Adulthood
Spans most of the lifespan, characterized by an initial leveling off followed by a varying decline in several physical abilities.
This decline affects reproductive ability, mobility (muscle mass), flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity.
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Menopause
Occurs in middle adulthood for females, marking the end of a woman's menstrual cycle and the ability to conceive.
Common symptoms include Hot flashes and mood changes.
3.3 Gender and Sexual Orientation - Basic Concepts
This section defines sex and gender, and explains gender identity development and socialization.
Source: Lancet Series on Gender Equality, Norms and Health. Paper 1, **2019**.
| Sex | Gender | |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Biological difference between males and females. | Social, physical, and behavioral traits a society considers normal for men and women. |
| Basis | Determined by chromosomes, reproductive organs, and genitalia. | Culturally defined roles, responsibilities, and attributes. |
Age 2
Gender Identification
Children can generally identify their own gender.
Age 3
Trait Recognition
Children begin to recognize specific traits associated with each gender.
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Gender Schema Theory
Children develop mental categories for masculinity and femininity.
This helps them understand their own gender role and leads them to gravitate toward activities aligning with those roles.
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Socialization
The process of learning what values, standards, and attitudes are appropriate for one's society.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
This section defines sexual orientation and gender identity, noting influences on attraction.
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Sexual Orientation
An individual's sexual attraction toward members of the same sex or different sex.
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Homosexual
Attraction to the same sex.
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Heterosexual
Attraction to the opposite sex.
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Bisexual
Attraction to both sexes.
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Asexual
Not attracted to either sex.
Sexual Orientation is Not a Choice
Researchers view sexual orientation as something a person cannot choose or change. It is most likely a combination of genetic influences and environmental influences, with no single specific trait or factor determining it.
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Gender Identity
An individual's personal sense of one's own gender.
Socialization Agents
Socialization agents are the primary influences shaping an individual's values and attitudes.
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Socialization Agents
The primary influences through which individuals learn the values, standards, and attitudes appropriate for their society.
Socialization Agents
Key influences on learning societal norms and behaviors.
Family
Greatest influence when young, main source of information.
Indirect Lessons
Messages and behaviors picked up without explicit teaching.
Schools and Peer Groups
Influence through interactions and observations in educational and social settings.
Classroom Treatment
Differential treatment of boys and girls.
Traditional Roles
Reactions to individuals not conforming to traditional gender roles.
Peer Interactions
How classmates treat others.
Positive Activities
Activities or interests deemed positive/normal for boys or girls.
Social Clout
How boys and girls gain social standing.
Media
Influence through portrayals and narratives in various forms of media.
Presentation of People
How individuals are depicted.
Highlighted Aspects
Which characteristics or behaviors are emphasized.
Impact on Perception
How media influences self-perception and societal views.